Sanjivani Rural Education Society’s

Sanjivani College of Engineering, Kopargaon-423603

(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune)
NAAC ‘A’ Grade Accredited, ISO 9001:2015 Certified

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Unit No. 1: Measurement Standards and Design of Gauges

Subject: Metrology and Quality Control (302045)

T. Y. B. Tech (Mechanical)

By

Mr. Nilesh D. Sadaphal (Asst. Professor)

Sanjivani College of Engineering
(An Autonomous Institute)
Kopargaon , Maharashtra
Email: sadaphalnileshmech@sanjivani.org.in Mobile:- 8087889397
Sanjivani College of Engineering
(An Autonomous Institute)
Kopargaon , Maharashtra
Email: sadaphalnileshmech@sanjivani.org.in Mobile:- 8087889397
 Unit-1-Contents
• Introduction: Principles of Engineering metrology, Measurement
standards, Types and sources of errors, Accuracy and Precision,
Calibration: Concept and procedure, traceability,
• Geometric Form Measurement: Straightness, Flatness, Roundness -
Straight edge, use of level beam comparator, autocollimator testing
of flatness of surface plate.
• Design of Gauges: Tolerances, Limits and Fits [IS 919-1993], Taylor’s
principle, Types of gauges, Wear allowance on gauges, Types of
gauges-plain plug gauge, ring gauge, snap gauge, limit gauge and
gauge materials, Considerations of gauge design (numerical).
 Metrology (Principles)
Metrology = Metros + logy. Here Metros means to measure and
logy means science. Metrology is defined as the Science of pure
measurement.
Metrology is categorized in following three categories:
(a) Scientific Metrology: It deals with the establishment and
development of measurement standards along with their
maintenance.
(b) Industrial Metrology: It has to ensure the 'adequate functioning
of measuring instruments' used in 'industry' as well as in
'production and testing' processes.
(c) Legal Metrology: Mandatory and legal bindings are specified on
units of measurement, methods of measurement, measuring
instruments, which are to be strictly followed during the act of
measurement. Legal metrology is concerned, to find out, whether
the above conditions are fulfilled or not ?
 Measurement Standards
Definition of Standard:
• A standard is defined as “something that is set up and established by
an authority as rule of the measure of quantity, weight, extent, value
or quality”. Rule which is universally accepted.
• Standard is defined as, "a physical or material presence of a unit".
• The role of standards is to support the system, which makes
measurements possible throughout the world.
• For example, Imperial Standard ‘Yard’ and ‘Metre’ have been used as
standards.
• But since 1960, the wavelength of light has been adopted as the
standard of measurement.
 Types of standards
Line standard
• Length is expressed as the distance between two lines/points.
Eg.-International meter standard, steel rule, inside-outside
calipers. Here, the unit of length measured is 'yard' or 'metre'.
• Line standards are quick and easy to use, but they are not
accurate. Accuracy of measurement depends upon the skill of
operator performing the measurements, which varies from
person to person.
• In addition to human error, calibration error also leads to
inaccuracy. During calibration of scale, very small deviations in
the graduations or divisions engraved on scale leads to highly
inaccurate measurements.
 End standard
• Length is expressed as the distance between two flat parallel
faces.
• End standards are very commonly used in laboratories and
engineering workshops for all the practical purposes.
• For example: (i) Slip gauges, (ii) Ends of micrometer anvils, (iii)
End bars/Length bars (iv) Jaws of vernier caliper etc.
• End standards can made to a very high degree of accuracy. A
modern end standard consists of a hardened block or bar of
steel. Their end surfaces are made truly flat and parallel by the
process of lapping or super finishing.
• Since primary standards are line standards, end standards
must be calibrated from line standards.
 Wavelength standard
• Wavelength of monochromatic light is used to measure length.
• Line standards and End standards are material (physical)
standards, which are subjected to destruction and their
dimensions vary with time.
• To overcome the above difficulties, wavelength of light is
introduced as standard of measurement. It is highly accurate
and does not depend on any physical standard.
• With monochromatic light, we have the advantage of constant
wavelength.
• Wavelength standards works on the principle based on the
phenomenon of 'interference of light waves'.
 Wavelength standard Continued…
• This interferometric technique enables the size of slip gauges
and end bars to be determined directly in terms of the
wavelength of light, instead of metres.
• Since wavelength does not have physical form, therefore, it is
not needed to be preserved, like material standards.
• Therefore wavelength standard is called as reproducible
standard of length.
• Error in reproducibility is very small (1 part in 100 millions).
Therefore, this error can be neglected.
• Krypton–86 is the most suitable source of radiations of
constant wavelength. Due to its high degree of accuracy, it is
accepted as International wavelength standard.
 ERRORS
• Error is the ‘difference between measured value and true value
of the measured quantity’.
• The errors may arise due to characteristics of measuring
instruments or the process of measurement may be influenced
by environmental conditions.
• While taking measurements with the help of different
measuring instruments several types of errors may arise.
• These errors can be broadly classified into two categories,
namely
• (a) Controllable or Systematic errors and
• (b) Random errors.
 Types and sources of ERRORS
Systematic Errors
• Systematic errors are regularly repetitive and can be
eliminated. They result from improper condition or procedure
of experiment .
• These error can be controlled & reduced if properly analyzed,
so called as Controllable errors.
Errors may be of four kinds:
1. Instrumental : For example, a poorly calibrated instrument
such as a thermometer that reads 102° C when immersed in
boiling water and 2°C when immersed in ice water at
atmospheric pressure. Such a thermometer would result in
measured values that are consistently too high.
2. Observational : For example, Parallax in reading a meter scale.

Parallax Error :
Parallax is a displacement
or difference in the apparent
position of an object viewed
along two different lines of sight,
and is measured by the angle or
semi-angle of inclination
between those two lines.
3. Environmental : Variation in atmospheric condition i.e.
temperature, pressure etc. at place of measurement.

4. Stylus pressure :
Variation in Force applied by anvils of micrometer on
component to be measured results in different reading.
Random Errors
• Random errors in experimental measurements are caused by unknown
and unpredictable changes in the experiment. These changes may occur in
the measuring instruments or in the environmental conditions.
• Sources of random errors cannot always be identified. Possible sources of
random errors are small variations in the position of setting standards and
work piece, slight displacement of lever joints in the measuring joints in
the measuring instrument.
• Examples of causes of random errors are:
1. electronic noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument,
2. Irregular changes in the heat loss rate from a solar collector due to
changes in the wind.
• These error cannot be eliminated.
1. Observational : For example, errors in judgment of an observer when
reading the scale of a measuring device to the smallest division.
2. Environmental : For example, unpredictable fluctuations in line voltage,
temperature, or mechanical vibrations of equipment.
 Terminology in Measurement

• Precision 
Degree of repetitiveness. If an instrument is not precise
it will give different results for the same dimension for
the repeated readings.
• Accuracy 
The maximum amount by which the result differ from
true value(i.e.) Closeness to true value.
• Accuracy
Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual
(true) value.
• Precision
Precision is how close the measured values are to each
other.

Examples of
Precision and
Accuracy:
 Characteristics of Measuring Instruments
• Accuracy- Degree of closeness of a measured value to actual (true)
value.
• Precision- Degree of closeness of the measured values to each other
i.e. repeatability of measurement process.
• Sensitivity- The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the
measured variable to which the instrument responds.
• Resolution-(Least count):The least count of any instrument is taken
as the resolution of the instrument. Smallest reading measured by
an instrument.
• Stability- It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance
throughout is specified operating life.
• Range or span- The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for
which an instrument is designed to measure is called its range or
span.
 Calibration
• Calibration is one of the primary processes used to maintain
instrument accuracy. 
• Calibration is the process of configuring an instrument to
provide a result for a sample within an acceptable range.
• Measurement of Accuracy.
• Establishment the relation of an instrument’s accuracy to the
international standard.

Success of Calibration
• Consistency of results obtained
 Need of Calibration
• Quality control & quality assurance in production.
• To meet requirement of ISO
• To comply with requirement of global market.
• To promote international recognition.

Benefits of Calibration
• Fulfills requirement of ISO 9000, ISO 14000.
• As a proof that the instrument is working properly.
• Confidence in using instrument.
• Reduce rejection, failure rate.
• Improved product & service quality leading to satisfied
customer.
• Cost saving, safety.
 Traceability
• In order to maintain accuracy and interchangeability in the
manufactured parts by various industries in a country, it is
necessary that, each and every industry should follow the
standards of units and measurements specified by 'National
Standards of Country‘ as well as International standards. This
process is called traceability.
• Traceability is defined as, "transfer of international standards
(higher grade) to national standards (lower grade) and then
transfer of national standards to working standards of all
industries located in that country".
• Traceability is also defined as, 'the property to trace working
standards (local) from National Standards and to trace National
Standards from International Standards'.
 Traceability Continued…

• Due to traceability, valid calibration of a measuring

instrument can be established as per the specified
standards.
• International standards and National standards are
also called as primary and secondary standards
respectively.
 Gauge R&R
Repeatability and Reproducibility in measurement systems

Repeatability- The ability of an operator to consistently repeat the

same measurement of the same part, using the same gage, under the
same conditions. Operator1 measures a single part with Gauge A 20
times, and then measures the same part with Gauge B.

The solid line is the measurements from Gauge A. The dashed line
is the measurements from Gauge B. Gauge A has less variation, so
it is more repeatable than Gauge B.
 Gauge R&R
Repeatability and Reproducibility in measurement systems
Reproducibility
The ability of a gage, used by multiple operators, to consistently
reproduce the same measurement of the same part, under the
same conditions. Operators 1, 2, and 3 measure the same part 20
times with the same gage.

The three lines are the measurements from Operator 1, 2, and 3.

The variation in average measurements between Appraisers 1 and
2 is much less than the variation between Appraisers 1 and 3.
Therefore, the gauge's reproducibility is too low.
 What/why is a gauge R&R study?
• A gauge R&R study helps you investigate:
 Whether your measurement system variability is small
compared with the process variability.
 How much variability in the measurement system is caused by
differences between operators.
 Whether your measurement system is capable of discriminating
(good judgement) between different parts.
 For example, several operators measure the diameter of screws
to ensure that they meet specifications. A gauge R&R study
indicates whether the inspectors are consistent in their
measurements of the same part (repeatability) and whether the
variation between inspectors is consistent (reproducibility).
 Classification of measuring Instruments

According to the functions:

•  Length measuring instrument
• Angle measuring instrument
• Instrument for checking deviation from geometrical
forms
• Instrument for determining the quality of surface
finish.
 Linear measuring instruments  
• Straight edge (Steel rule)
• Outside caliper
• Inside caliper
• Vernier caliper
• Outside micrometer
• Inside micrometer
• Vernier height gauge
• Vernier depth gauge
• Dial gauges
 Angular measurements
• Measuring the angle of Taper.
1. Bevel Protractor
2. Tool Makers microscope
3. Sine bar
4. Auto Collimator
5. Sine Centre
 Measuring tools and instruments
Measuring tools and instruments

Direct (contact) measurement Indirect (non-contact) measurement

(e.g. micrometer or caliper) (advanced methods such as optical,
ultrasonic, laser, etc.)

Graduated
(either linear or angular Non-graduated
graduations incorporated (gauges or adjustable
into measuring system of tools which compare
the tool) the measurements)

h Rules h Calipers
h Vernier Calipers h Gauges and Gauge Blocks
h Vernier Gauges h Sine Bar
h Micrometers h Special-purpose tools
h Protractors
h Dial Indicators
1
Graduated Linear Measurement - Rules

Imperial steel rule with various lengths

having graduations on each side

Same rule with relatively larger

graduations

Metric steel rule with various lengths

having graduations on each side

resolution?
How to read a rule:
h A = 12 mm (12th graduation)

h B = 22 mm (22nd graduation)
h C = 31.5 mm (between 31st and 32nd)
h D = 40.5 mm (between 40th and 41st)
2
Graduated Linear Measurement - Vernier Calipers

3
 Graduated Linear Measurement - Vernier Calipers

Direct reading of an internal length

using digital Vernier caliper Direct reading of an external length
using digital vernier caliper

Vernier caliper with a dial indicator 4

 Graduated Linear Measurement - Vernier Height Gauges
Designed for use in toolrooms, workshops, inspection departments to measure or mark off vertical
heights and locating center distances.

Standard Height gauge Dial Height Gauge Digital Height Gauge

5
 Graduated Linear Measurement - Vernier Depth Gauges
Designed for use in toolrooms, workshops, inspection departments to measure depths of holes, slots,
recesses, and so on.

Standard Depth Gauge Dial Depth Gauge Digital Depth Gauge

6
Graduated Linear Measurement - Outside Micrometers
VERNIER READING THIMBLE READING

Metric Micrometer

SLEEVE (BARREL) READING

Metric Vernier
Micrometer

7
 Graduated Linear Measurement - Outside Micrometers

Dial-indicating Micrometer V-anvil Micrometer (measuring odd-fluted taps, milling

cutters, reamers, and checking out of roundness)

Direct-reading Screw Thread Micrometer

Micrometer (measuring pitch diameter
of screw threads)
8
Graduated Linear Measurement - Inside Micrometers

Standard Inside Micrometers Digital Inside Micrometers

9
 Non-Graduated Linear Measurement - Calipers
h Standard calipers have a fine adjustment screw and a quick-adjusting spring nut.
h Accuracy obtained with these tools depends mostly on the inherent skill of users.
h The measurements are carefully transferred to a graduated measuring tool.

Caliper for inside Caliper for outside Caliper used

measurement measurement as a divider

13
 Non-Graduated Linear Measurement - Special Purpose Gauges

Screw Pitch Gauges (consisting of a metal case containing

many separate leaves. Each leaf has teeth corresponding to
a definite pitch. By matching the teeth with the thread on
work, the correct pitch can be read directly from the leaf)

Tap and Drill Gauges (consisting

of a flat rectangular steel plate with
holes accurately drilled and
Radius Gauges (available as individual leaves and each
identified according to their size)
leaf is marked with its radius. They are designed to check
both convex and concave radii)
15
Non-Graduated Linear Measurement - Rectangular Gauge Blocks

Slip Gauge Box

16
 Graduated Angular Measurement - Protractors

(a)

Simple (b)
Protractor
(measuring
angles from
0 to 180º) Universal Bevel Protractor (main Measuring acute (a) and
scale consists of 4 portions of 90º) obtuse (b) angles

How to read an angle on a bevel protractor:

Main div. = 1º = 60´
Vernier div. = 1/12th of main div. ≈ 0.0833º = 5´

h The highest figure: 50 * (main div.) = 50º

h The matching figure: 4 * (vernier div.) ≈ 0.333º = 20´
h The final reading is: ≈ 50.333º or 50º 20´
11
 Non-Graduated Angular Measurement - Sine Bar

Limitations of Sine Bar:

Maximum angle 45°

Sine Center - 60° 18