ELTMI601

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND

INSTRUMENTATION
 Objectives
By the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:

✓ Identify properly measuring instruments types based on their applications

✓ Select properly measuring instruments based on their characteristics and applications

✓ Connect properly Electrical measuring instrument based on their types and applications

✓ Calibrate effectively measuring instrument inline with the measurement

✓ Perform correctly measuring instrument according on the measurement

✓ Implement effectively non-electrical signal parameters based on the measurement

requirements
 Learning outcomes
On successful completion of this course, trainee should be able to:
▪ Identify measuring instruments
▪ Use basic electric meters
▪ Test the performance characteristics of basic meters
▪ Describe working principle of oscilloscope
▪ Calibrate the oscilloscope
▪ Measure signal parameters
▪ Apply electric bridges in measurement
▪ Implement signal conditioning
▪ Apply various transducers for measuring physical quantities
 Indicative content
LU.1: Illustrate Measuring LU.2: Measurement
Instruments types and with Oscilloscope
fixtures
▪ Connect using Oscilloscope
• Measuring instruments selection
✓ Digital storage oscilloscopes
• Measuring Units’ Systems
✓ Digital phosphor oscilloscopes
• Basic measuring devices and their
✓ Mixed signal oscilloscopes
applications

• Static characteristics

• Dynamic Characteristics

• Absolute Instruments

• Secondary Instruments

• Connect electrical measurement

 Indicative content cont’d
LU.3:Measurement of non-Electrical quantities
• AC Bridge
• DC Bridge
• Apply bridges in measurement
• Electrical transducers
• Passive transducers
• Active transducers
• Fundamentals of non electrical signal parameters
• Key consideration when building a non-electrical signal system
• Implementing a signal system
 References

1. David, A. B. (2013). Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements.

2. Golding, E. &. (1968).Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments.

3. Purkait, P. B. (2013). Electrical and Electronics Measurements and

Instrumentation.
 Methods of assessment

✓CAT1:LU1 LU3[30 marks]

✓CAT2: LU1 LU2 [30 marks]

✓FAT: LU1 LU3 [40 marks]

 LU1.1.IDENTIFY MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Introduction to Instrumentation
• Obtaining accurate, reliable and cost-effective measurements depends on the
instrument, the user and the mathematical treatment of the measured results

• Proper selection, use of instruments and interpretation of measurement are the

responsibilities of the user

• A person’s basic ability to make an intelligent selection and to use the instrument
properly is greatly increased by an understanding of the basic theory of operation and
the capabilities and limitations of the instrument families.

• Almost all families of test and measuring instruments give the user a set of values of a
parameter that is of interest to the user.

• To interpret these parameter values more meaningfully some basic terms and techniques
could be used.
• An instrument is a device designed to collect data from an environment, or from a unit
under test, and to display information to a user based on the collected data.

• Such an instrument may employ a transducer to sense changes in a physical parameter,

such as temperature or pressure, and to convert the sensed information into electrical
signals, such as voltage or frequency variations

• The term instrument may also cover, and for purposes of this description it will be taken
to cover, a physical or software device that performs an analysis on data acquired from
another instrument and then outputs the processed data to display or recording means.

• This second category of instruments would, for example, include oscilloscopes,

spectrum analyzers and digital multimeters.

• The types of source data collected and analyzed by instruments may thus vary widely,
including both physical parameters such as temperature, pressure, distance, and light
and sound frequencies and amplitudes, and also electrical parameters including voltage,
current, and frequency.
 Definition of measurement
▪ Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of comparison between the
quantity and predetermined or predefined standards.

Measurement standards
is physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known accurate measure of
physical quantity is termed as a standard.
All these standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and Measures at
Sevres, Paris.
❖ Also, depending on the functions and applications, Different Types of Standards of
measurement are classified in categories

1. International Standards

2. Primary Standards

3. Secondary Standards

4. Working Standards
 International Standards

o International standards are defined by international agreement.

o They are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of
fundamental units of Physics.
o They represent certain units of measurement to the closest possible accuracy attainable
by the science and technology of measurement.
o These International Standards of Measurement are not available to ordinary users for
measurements and calibrations.
 Primary Standards

o The principle function of primary standards is the calibration and verification

of secondary standards.

o Primary standards are maintained at the National Standards Laboratories in

different countries.

o The primary standards are not available for use outside the National
Laboratory.

o These primary standards are absolute standards of high accuracy that can be
used as ultimate reference standards.
 Secondary Standards

o Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement

and calibration laboratories in industries.

o These secondary standards are maintained by the particular industry to

which they belong.

o Each industry has its own secondary standard.

o Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard to the National

standards laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary
standard.

o After comparison and calibration, the National Standards Laboratory

returns the Secondary standards to the particular industrial laboratory with
a certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a primary standard.
 Working Standards

o Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory.

o These standards are used to check and calibrate laboratory instrument for
accuracy and performance.

o For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors,

resistors, etc. use a standard called a working Standards of Measurement
for checking the component values being manufactured, e.g. a standard
resistor for checking of resistance value manufactured.
 Working Standards

o Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory.

o These standards are used to check and calibrate laboratory instrument for
accuracy and performance.

o For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors,

resistors, etc. use a standard called a working Standards of Measurement
for checking the component values being manufactured, e.g. a standard
resistor for checking of resistance value manufactured.
 Measuring units’ system

Measurement systems are a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them
to each other.
A system of measurement like:
✓ International System of Units
✓ Imperial system
✓ US customary units
were standardized across the world.
 International System of Units (SI)
<the modern form of the metric system>

• Rapid advances in science and technology in the 19th and 20th centuries fostered
the development of several overlapping systems of units of measurements as
scientists improvised to meet the practical needs of their disciplines.

• The early International system devised to rectify this situation was called the meter-
kilogram- second (MKS) system.

• The General Conference on Weights and Measures (GCWM) added three new units
(among others) in 1948:

➢ a unit of force (the newton)

➢ a unit of energy (the joule)

➢ a unit of power (the watt)

 MKS System of Units

▪ The MKS system of units is a physical system of measurement that uses

the meter, kilogram, and second (MKS) as base units.

▪ The modern International System of Units (SI) was originally created as a

formalization of the MKS system, and although the SI has been redefined several
times since then and is now based entirely on fundamental physical constants, it
still closely approximates the original MKS system for most practical purposes.
Derived units
 Dimensional analysis

• In engineering and science, dimensional analysis is the analysis of the

relationships between different physical quantities by identifying their base
quantities (such as length, mass, time, and electric current) and units of
measurement (such as metres and grams) and tracking these dimensions as
calculations or comparisons are performed.

• The term dimensional analysis is also used to refer to conversion of units from one
dimensional unit to another, which can be used to evaluate scientific formulae.
 Formulation

There are many possible choices of base physical dimensions. The SI standard selects
the following dimensions and corresponding dimension symbols:

time (T), length (L), mass (M), electric current (I), absolute temperature (Θ), amount of
substance (N) and luminous intensity (J).
Simple cases
 Imperial System

• The imperial system is a system of weights and measures that includes pounds,
ounces, feet, yards, miles, etc. We also call it imperial units, British imperial,
or Exchequer Standards of 1928.
• Imperial units came into force across the British Empire after the British Weights
and Measures Act of 1824. They replaced the Winchester Standards, which had
existed since 1588
• Over the last century, however, most of the Commonwealth nations have switched
from the Imperial units to the metric system. Even the United Kingdom has
converted to the metric system for most weights and some other measurements
• Most of the world’s empires had converted to the metric system by the end of the
19th century.
Imperial System Units
Imperial System Chart
Briefly
 US Standard System of Measurements

• After the US gained independence from the British, they decided to keep the
imperial system of measurement but with some changes.

• They made their own US Standard system which is quite similar to the imperial
system.

• Here things are measured in feet, inches, pounds, ounces, pint etc.
 Let us explore them in detail in the following
sections
• Length: The four most commonly used measures of lengths are inch, feet, yards, miles. Let
us look at the conversions from one unit to another. 1 inch = 2.54 cms. 1 foot = 12 inches. 1
yard = 3ft or 36 inches. 1 mile = 1760 yards (5280 ft), (1 metrics 1.609344 km.)
• Area: An area is a two-dimensional unit. It is the amount of space occupied by the object. We
use inches, feet, yards, miles to measure the length and thus area too. The area is measured in
square units such as square inch, square foot, square yard, square mile, acre. Let us look at a
few examples of areas. A chessboard is 100sq inches, a garage is 200 sq ft, a part is 100 sq
yards, a botanical garden is 500 sq miles, a football ground is exactly 1 acre (1 acre = 43,560
feet.)
• Volume: Volume is a three-dimensional quantity. It is the amount of capacity/space a
substance contains, or the space it can hold. The most common measures of volume in the US
customary units are fluid ounces (fl. oz), cups, pints, quarts, and gallons. Let us look at the
conversion from one unit to another. 1 cup = 8 fl oz. 1 pint = 2 cups. 1 quart = 2 pints, 1
gallon = 4 quarts.
• Mass: The most common measurements of mass in the US customary units are

ounces (oz), pounds (lb), and tons (ton). Let us look at the conversions from one

unit to another. 1 pound = 16 oz, and 1 ton = 2000 lb.

• Time and Date: Time is measured in seconds. We use a clock (digital or analog) to

tell the current time. There are 12-hr clock and 24-hour clock formats as well

• Temperature: Temperature is the measure of how hot or cold substances are. We

use a thermometer to measure the temperature. The temperature is measured in

degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin(K) or Fahrenheit (°F).

• Speed: Speed is the total distance covered by an object in a given time. It is the

ratio of distance covered to the time traveled. In British and US customary units,

speed is measured in miles per hour (mph). The speedometer is an instrument that

gives the current speed at which the vehicle is traveling. You might have seen it in

your car.
 Units of Temperature
What are Temperature Conversion Formulas?

Different units can be used to record the temperature. The three different units used for
measuring temperature are Celsius (°C) Fahrenheit (°F), and Kelvin (K). Kelvin is the
SI unit of measuring temperature, whereas Fahrenheit and Celsius are commonly used
scales.

Before learning the temperature conversion formulas, let us recall the units of
temperature in detail.
Celsius
Celsius scale was Invented in 1742 by Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius and hence named
after him. Celsius, also called centigrade, is based on the freezing point of water which is 0°, and
the boiling point of water which is 100° The temperature in celsius is represented with °C.
Normal human body temperature is 37°C.
Fahrenheit
The Fahrenheit scale is a temperature scale developed by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit and hence
named after him. This scale has the boiling point of water at 212° F and the freezing point at 32°
F. The temperature in Fahrenheit is represented with °F. The normal human body temperature is
98.6°F.
Kelvin
Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature. The unit symbol is K. It is named after the physicist William
Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907). Here the degree symbol ° is not used to represent the
temperature, unlike in Celsius or Fahrenheit.
Temperature conversion formulas
Example1: Convert 16°C into Kelvin
Solution:

C = 16°C
K = C + 273.15
= 16 + 273.15
= 289.15 K

Therefore, 16°C is equivalent to 289.15 K.

Example2: What is 115°F on the Celsius scale?
Solution:

F = 115°F.
Using Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion formula,
C = (F − 32) × 5/9
= (115 − 32) × (5/9)
= 46.11°F

Therefore, 115°F is 46.11°C on the centigrade scale.

Example4: Convert 100 degrees Fahrenheit to
Kelvin
Solution:

Temperature in Fahrenheit, F = 100 F(Given)

K = (F − 32) × 5/9 + 273.15

=(100 − 32) × 5/9 + 273.15
= 310.93 K

Therefore, 100 degree Fahrenheit = 310.93 K

 Why all the systems of measurement?

Though learners learn all the systems

of measurement,
the main focus is on the metric system as it is
more commonly used in everyday life.
Operational Modes of Instrumentation

1. Null Instrument

2. Deflection Instrument

3. Digital instruments
 Null Instrument

• The null method is one possible mode of operation for a measuring instrument.

• A null instrument uses the null method for measurement. In this method, the
instrument exerts an influence on the measured system so as to oppose the effect
of the measurand.

• The influence and the measurand are balanced until they are equal but opposite
in value, yielding a null measurement.

• An equal arm balance scale is a good mechanical example of a manual balance-

feedback null instrument. This scale compares the unknown weight of an object
on one side against a set of standard or known weights. Known values of weight
are iteratively added to one side to exert an influence to oppose the effect of the
unknown weight on the opposite side.
A disadvantage of null instruments is that an iterative balancing operation requires more
time to execute than simply measuring sensor input.
 Deflection Instrument (Analog instruments)

• The instruments in which the measured quantity produces physical effects which
deflect or displace the moving system of the instruments in known as the deflection
type instrument.

• Deflection are relatively simple and inexpensive and are often used instead of
digital instruments, especially when cost is of particular conce

• because analogue instruments are usually passive instruments that do not need a
power supply, this is often very useful in measurement applications where a suitable
mains power supply is not readily available

• Analogue meters are electromechanical devices that drive a pointer against a scale
 MOVING-COIL METERS

A moving-coil meter is a very commonly used form of analogue voltmeter because of

its sensitivity, accuracy and linear scale, although it only responds to d.c. signals.
• As shown schematically in above Figure, it consists of a rectangular coil wound round a soft
iron core that is suspended in the field of a permanent magnet.

• The signal being measured is applied to the coil and this produces a radial magnetic field.
Interaction between this induced field and the field produced by the permanent magnet
causes a torque, which results in rotation of the coil.

• The amount of rotation of the coil is measured by attaching a pointer to it that moves past a
graduated scale. The theoretical torque produced is given by: TEM = BIhwN

Where:

B: is the flux density of the radial field

I : is the current flowing in the coil

h: is the height of the coil
w: is the width of the coil
N: is the number of turns in the coil.
• If the iron core is cylindrical and the air gap between the coil and pole faces of
the permanent magnet is uniform, then the flux density B is constant i.e. the
torque is proportional to the coil current and the instrument scale is linear.

• As the basic instrument operates at low current levels of one milliamp or so, it is
only suitable for measuring voltages up to around 2 volts.

• If there is a requirement to measure higher voltages, the measuring range of the

instrument can be increased by placing a resistance in series with the coil, such
that only a known proportion of the applied voltage is measured by the meter.

• In this situation, the added resistance is known as a shunting resistor.

• This torque is opposed by spiral control springs mounted on each end of the coil.
The torque put forth on the control spring is TSP = kθ

where θ is the angle of rotation (degrees) and k is spring constant (N-m/degree).

• At equilibrium (at balance) which is constant for a specific equipment provided
that B is constant. In this respect, the moving coil instrument can be considered as a
transducer that converts the electrical current to angular displacement. The linear
relation between θ and I indicate that we have a linear (uniform) scale.
 Electrodynamic meters

Electrodynamic meters (or dynamometers) can measure both d.c. signals and
a.c.signals up to a frequency of 2 kHz.

As illustrated in below figure, the instrument has a moving circular coil that is mounted
in the magnetic field produced by two separately wound, series-connected, circular
stator coils.
• Electrodynamic meters are typically expensive but have the advantage of being
more accurate than moving-coil and moving-iron instruments. Voltage, current and
power can all be measured if the fixed and moving coils are connected
appropriately.

• When used for voltage measurement, the instrument can typically measure
voltages in the range of 0 to 30 volts.

• However, it can be modified to measure higher voltages by placing a resistance in

series with it, as in the case of moving-coil and moving-iron meters.

• Also, as in the moving-iron meter, a series resistance is particularly beneficial in

a.c. signal measurements because it compensates for the effect of coil inductance
by reducing the total resistance/inductance ratio, and hence measurement accuracy
is improved.

• This series resistance can either be inside or outside the instrument case, as
discussed above for the case of moving-coil meters.
 Moving-iron meter

• As well as measuring d.c. signals, the moving-iron meter can also measure a.c. signals at
frequencies up to 125 Hz. It is the cheapest form of meter available and, consequently, this
type of meter is also commonly used for measuring voltage signals.

• The signal to be measured is applied to a stationary coil, and the associated field
produced is often amplified by the presence of an iron structure associated with the
fixed coil.

• The moving element in the instrument consists of an iron vane that is suspended
within the field of the fixed coil. When the fixed coil is excited, the iron vane turns
in a direction that increases the flux through it.

• The majority of moving-iron instruments are either of the attraction type or of the
repulsion type. A few instruments belong to a third combination type.
 The digital voltmeter (dvm)

• The digital measuring instruments indicate the values of the quantity in digital
format that is in numbers, which can be read easily

• All types of digital meter are basically modified forms of the digital voltmeter
(DVM), irrespective of the quantity that they are designed to measure.

• Digital meters designed to measure quantities other than voltage are in fact digital
voltmeters that contain appropriate electrical circuits to convert current or
resistance measurement signals into voltage signals.

• Digital multimeters are also essentially digital voltmeters that contain several
conversion circuits, thus allowing the measurement of voltage, current and
resistance within one instrument.
• Digital meters have been developed to satisfy a need for higher measurement accuracies and a
faster speed of response to voltage changes than can be achieved with analogue instruments.
They are technically superior to analogue meters in almost every respect.

• However, they have a greater cost due to the higher manufacturing costs compared with
analogue meters. The binary nature of the output reading from a digital instrument can be
readily applied to a display that is in the form of discrete numerals.

• Where human operators are required to measure and record signal voltage levels, this form of
output makes an important contribution to measurement reliability and accuracy, since the
problem of analogue meter parallax error is eliminated and the possibility of gross error
through misreading the meter output is greatly reduced.
 The DVM has several advantages over
the analog type voltmeters
o Input range: from ± 1.000 000 V to ± 1,000.000 V with automatic range selection.
o Absolute accuracy: as high as ± 0.005% of the reading.
o Stability
o Resolution: 1 part in 106 (1 µV can be read in 1 V range).
o Input impedance: Ri ≈ 10 M Ω ; Ci ≈ 40 pF
o Calibration: internal standard derived from a stabilized reference voltage source.
o Output signals: measured voltage is available as a BCD (binary coded decimal) code
and can be send to computers or printers.
Basic measuring devices and their
applications