UNIT I SCIENCE OF MEASUREMENTS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

“Units and standards – Static calibration – Classification of errors, Limiting error and probable error – Error
analysis – Statistical methods – Odds and uncertainty – Classification of transducers – Selection of transducers”

 MEASUREMENT:
The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a quantitative comparison between a
pre-defined standard and a measurand. The word measurand is used to designate the particular
physical parameter being observed and quantified that is, the input quantity to the measuring process.
 UNITS:
 Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic, arbitrarily
chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called unit.
 The result of a measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a number (or numerical
measure) accompanied by a unit.
 The units that are fundamental or base to most physical quantities are called fundamental or
base units. They are length, mass and time. These units cannot be derived from one another and
cannot be resolved into any other units. They are independent of one another. There are four
categories of systems of units: CGS (centimeter, gram, second) system, MKS (meter, kilogram,
second) system, FPS (foot, pound, second) and SI systems of units of measurement.
 Units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units with the help of physical equations
are called derived units.
 A complete set of these units, both the base units and derived units, is known as the system of
units.

The International System of Units

 In earlier time, scientists of different countries were using different systems of units for
measurement. Three such systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS system
were in use extensively till recently.
 The base units for length, mass and time in these systems were as follows
o In CGS system they were centimeter, gram and second
o In FPS system they were foot, pound and second
o In MKS system they were meter, kilogram and second
 The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is the Système
Internationale d’ Unites (French for International System of Units), abbreviated as SI.
 The SI, with standard scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations, was developed and
recommended by General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971 for international usage
in scientific, technical, industrial and commercial work.
 Because SI units used decimal system, conversions within the system are quite simple and
convenient.
 In SI, there are seven base units.
Length metre m
Mass kilogram
kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere
A
Thermodynamic kelvin K
Temperature
Amount of mol
Substance
Luminous candela
Intensity cd

 Besides the seven base units, there are two more units and both these are dimensionless
quantities.

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 Plane Angle rad
Solid Angle sr

 STANDARDS:
 A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. It is a piece of equipment
having a known measure of physical quantity. They are used for the measurements of other
physical quantities by comparison methods.
 Standards of measurements can be classified in to
1. International standards
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards
1. International standards
These are defined on the basis of international agreement.
They represent the units of measurements which are closest to the possible accuracy attainable
with present day technological and scientific methods.
International standards are checked and evaluated regularly against absolute measurements in
terms of the fundamental units.
These standards are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and are not
available to the ordinary user of measuring instruments for the purposes of calibration or
comparison.
2. Primary standards (Absolute standards)
The Primary standards are the absolute standards which can be used as the ultimate reference
standards.
These standards are maintained by National Standards Laboratories in different parts of the
world.
The primary standards which represent the fundamental units are independently calibrated by
absolute measurements at each of the national laboratories.
One of the main functions of the primary standards is the verifications and calibration of
secondary standards.
The primary standards are very few in number. These standards have the highest possible
accuracy and stability.
3. Secondary standards
The secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in industrial measurement
laboratories.
They are sent periodically to the national standards laboratories for calibration and comparison
against primary standards.
The secondary standards are sent back to the industry by the National laboratories with a
certification regarding their measured values in terms of primary standards.
4. Working standards
These standards are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instrument for their accuracy
and performance.
Its accuracy is less compared with secondary standard. So periodic comparison with secondary
standard is mandatory

 CALIBRATION:
 Calibration of the measuring instrument is the process in which the readings obtained from the
instrument are compared with the sub-standards in the laboratory at several points along the scale
of the instrument
 As per the results obtained from the readings obtained of the instrument and the sub-standards,
the curve is plotted. If the instrument is accurate there will be matching of the scales of the
instrument and the sub-standard
 If there is deviation of the measured value from the instrument against the standard value, the
instrument is calibrated to give the correct values
 Static calibration refers to the input-output relations obtained when only one input of the
instrument is varied at a time, all other inputs being kept constant
 Steps involved in static calibration-
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 1. Examine the construction of the instrument and identify and list all the possible inputs
2. Decide the best possible input which will be significant to the application for which the
instrument is to be calibrated
3. Select the apparatus that will allow to vary all the significant inputs over the range considered
necessary
4. By holding some inputs constant, varying others and record the output, develop a desired
static input-output relation

 CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS:
Measurement is the foundation of all experimental science and technology. The result of every
measurement by any measuring instrument contains some uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error.
There are generally two types of error in measurement as
 STATIC ERROR
A static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value of the
quantity. The true value is the exact value of the measurement which is impossible to obtain. Hence the
approximate true value of the measurement should be taken into consideration. The errors mainly occur
because of poor design and improper maintenance of the system.
1. Gross Errors
 These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or error in
recording observations. Error may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and
computational mistakes
 These errors cannot be treated mathematically
 The complete elimination of gross error is not possible, but one can minimize them. Some errors
are easily detected while others may be elusive
 One of the basic gross errors that occur frequently is the improper use of an instrument. The error
can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording the measurement parameter
2. Systematic Error
 The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or negative
 Some sources of systematic error are:
 Errors in the calibration of the measuring instruments.
 Incorrect measuring technique: For example, one might make an incorrect scale Reading
because of parallax error
 Bias of the experimenter. The experimenter might consistently read an instrument
incorrectly, or might let knowledge of the expected value of a result influence the
measurements
 There are basically three types of systematic errors:-
a. Instrumental errors
b. Environmental errors
c. Observational errors
a. Instrumental Errors
 Instrumental error refers to the combined accuracy and precision of a measuring instrument, or
the difference between the actual value and the value indicated by the instrument.
 These errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of their mechanical structure.
 Instrumental errors can be avoided by:-
 Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement applications.
 Appling correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error.
 Calibrating the instrument against a standard.
b. Environmental Errors
 An environmental error is an error in calculations that are being a part of observations due to
environment. Any experiment performing anywhere in the universe has its surroundings, from
which we cannot eliminate our system. The study of environmental effects has primary advantage
of being able to justify the fact that environment has impact on experiments and feasible
environment will not only rectify our result but also amplify it.
 The environmental errors have different causes, which are widening with the passage of time, as
the research works telling us, including; temperature, humidity, magnetic field, constantly
vibrating earth surface, wind and improper lightening.

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  In high precision laboratories, where a slightest bug can destroy the whole system, removal or at
least minimizing the environmental errors proved to be very fruitful.
c. Observational Errors
 Observational errors are error introduced by the observer. The most common error is the parallax
error introduced in reading a meter scale, and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading
from a meter scale.
 These errors are caused by the habit of individual observers. For example, an observer may
always introduce and error by consistently holding his head too far to the left while reading a
needle and scale reading.
 In general, systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and dynamic errors. Static errors
are caused by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its behavior.

Dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in a
measured variable.

3. Random Errors
 The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random with respect to
sign and size. These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental
conditions (e.g. unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations
of experimental set-ups, etc), personal (unbiased) errors by the observer taking readings, etc.
 Random errors are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been substantially
reduced or at least accounted for. Random errors are generally an accumulation of a large number
of small effects and may be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of
accuracy. Such errors can be analyzed statically.
 These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary processor making
measurements. Such errors are normally small and follow the laws of probability. Random errors
can thus be treated mathematically.
 For example, suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is read at 15 minutes
intervals. Although the instrument operates under ideal environmental conditions and accurately
calibrated before measurements, it still gives that vary slightly over the period of observation.
This variation cannot be corrected by any method of calibration or any other known method of
control.
 Random error unlike systematic error is not unidirectional. Some of the measured values are
greater than true value some are less than true value.
 The errors introduced are sometimes positive and sometimes negative with respect to true value.
It is possible to minimize this type of error by repeating measurements and applying statistical
technique to get closer value to the true value.
 Another distinguishing aspect of random error is that it is not biased. It is there because of the
limitation of the instrument in hand and the limitation on the part of human ability. No human
being can repeat an action in exactly the same manner. Hence, it is likely that same person reports
different values with the same instrument, which measures the quantity correctly.
 Sources of Random Errors other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide true
measurements, are as follows:
 Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions
 Poor design.
 Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.
 Poor maintenance.
 Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment.
 Certain design limitations

 DYNAMIC ERROR
Dynamic error is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time and the
value indicated by the instrument.

 LIMITING ERROR:

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  In most indicating instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to a certain percentage to a full scale
reading. The limits of this deviation from the specified value are known as limiting errors or
guarantee errors.
 For example, if the resistance of a resistor is given as 500Ω ± 10%, the manufacture guarantees
that the resistance full between the limits 450Ω and 550Ω.
 The limited deviation of the measured value from the true value is known as the limiting error
or guarantee error. Such type of error is fixed on the instrument.
 The magnitude of the limiting error depends on the design, material and the workmanship used
for the instrument. The manufacturer already knew about the limiting error of the instrument.
 The actual value of the instrument along with the limiting error is expressed as Aa = As ± δA
Where Aa – actual value, As – specified or rated value, δA – limiting error or tolerance
 Relative Limiting Error = (actual value – nominal value) / nominal value

 PROBABLE ERROR:
The error associated with providing estimates for a sample that is from a normal distribution. It is the
product of the standard error and 0.6745

 ERROR ANALYSIS: (Statistical Methods)

1. Arithmetic mean:
The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the number of readings
taken. It is defined as the average value of the readings which is given by
n
∑ Xα
x 1 + x 2 +. . .+ xn α=1
X= =
n n
Where xα= individual readings, n= total number of readings.
2. Average deviation:
It is defined as the average of the modulus of the individual deviations is given by
n n
∑ |d | ∑ |x −x|
|d 1|+|d 2|+ .. .+|d n| α=1 α α =1 α
D= = =
n n n
3. Standard deviation:

√
n
∑ dα
2

α =1
σ=
When the number of reading is less than or equal to 20, n−1

√
n
∑ dα
2

α =1
σ=
When the number of reading is more than 20, n
4. Variance:
The square of standard deviation is variance. When the number of reading is less than or equal to

√ √
n n
∑ dα ∑ dα
2 2

α=1 α=1
σ 2= σ 2=
20, n−1 . When the number of reading is more than 20, n

 ODDS AND UNCERTAINTY:

Uncertainty is often expressed in odds such as n:1
It means that the number of chances a particular incidence occurs within specified limits. Ods are
calculated from the relation p = odd / (odds + 1)
Where p is the probability of occurrence of the incidence

 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS:
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 The transducers can be classified broadly
1. On the basis of transduction form used
2. As primary and secondary transducers
3. As active and passive transducers
4. As transducers and inverse transducers.

1. Based upon the transduction principle:

 Resistance - Potentiometer devices, Resistance strain gauge, Pirani gauge or hot wire meter,
Resistance thermometer, Thermistor, Resistance hygrometer, Photoconductive cell.
 Capacitance - Variable capacitance pressure gauge, Capacitor microphone, Dielectric gauge.
 Inductance - Magnetic circuit transducer, Reluctance pick-up, Differential transformer,
Eddy current gauge, Magnetostriction gauge.
 Voltage & Current - Hall effect transducer, Ionization chamber, Photo emissive cell,
Photomultiplier tube.
 Self-generating transducers - Thermocouple, Thermopile, Moving coil generator, Piezoelectric
transducer, Photovoltaic.
2. Primary Transducers and Secondary Transducers
To measure pressure we use bourdon tube. Bourdon tube act as primary transducer it senses the
pressure and converts pressure into displacement of its free end. The displacement of free end moves core
of linear variable differential transducer which produces output voltage proportional to movement of core
which is proportional to movement of core which is again proportional to pressure. So we are able to
measure pressure. Here bourdon tube is primary transducer and LVDT is secondary transducer.

3. A component whose output energy is supplied entirely by its input signal (physical
quantity under measurement) is commonly called a ‘passive transducer’. In other words, the passive
transducers derive the power required for transduction from an auxiliary source.
Some of the passive transducers (electrical transducers), their electrical parameter
(resistance, capacitance, etc), principle of operation and applications are listed below.
a. Resistance Variation Type

Resistance The change in value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due to

Strain Gauge elongation or compression is known by the measurement of torque,
displacement or force
Resistance The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in temperature
Thermometer known by the measurement of temperature
Resistance The change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the change of
Hygrometer moisture content is known by the value of its corresponding humidity
Hot Wire Meter The change in resistance of a heating element due to convection cooling of
a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas flow or pressure
Photoconductive The change in resistance of a cell due to a corresponding change in light
Cell flux is known by its corresponding light intensity
Thermistor  The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a negative co-
efficient of resistance is known by its corresponding measure of
temperature.
Potentiometer The change in resistance of a potentiometer reading due to the movement
Type of the slider as a part of an external force applied is known by its
corresponding pressure or displacement

b. Capacitance Variation Type

Variable The change in capacitance due to the change of distance between two
Capacitance parallel plates caused by an external force is known by its corresponding
Pressure Gauge displacement or pressure
Dielectric Gauge The change in capacitance due to a change in the dielectric is known by its
corresponding liquid level or thickness
Capacitor The change in capacitance due to the variation in sound pressure on a
Microphone movable diagram is known by its corresponding sound
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 c. Inductance Variation Type

Eddy Current The change in inductance of a coil due to the proximity of an eddy current
Transducer plate is known by its corresponding displacement or thickness
Variable The variation in reluctance of a magnetic circuit that occurs due to the
Reluctance Type change in position of the iron core or coil is known by its corresponding
displacement or pressure
Proximity The inductance changes of an alternating current excited coil due to the
Inductance Type change in the magnetic circuit is known by its corresponding pressure or
displacement
Differential The change in differential voltage of 2 secondary windings of a
Transformer  transformer because of the change in position of the magnetic core is
known by its corresponding force, pressure or displacement.
Magneto The change in magnetic properties due to change in pressure and stress is
strictive known by its corresponding sound value, pressure or force
Transducer

Active transducers are those which do not require an auxiliary power source to produce
their output. They are also known as self-generating type since they produce their own
voltage or current output.

Thermocouple An emf is generated across the junction of two dissimilar

and thermopile metals or semiconductors when that junction is heated. Applications:
Temperature, heat flow, radiation
Moving-coil Motion of a coil in a magnetic field generates a voltage.
generator Applications: Velocity. Vibration
Piezoelectric An emf is generated when an external force is applied to certain crystalline
pickup materials,
such as quartz Sound, vibration. acceleration, pressure changes
Photovoltaic cell A voltage is generated in a semi-conductor junction device when
radiant energy stimulates the cell. Applications: Light meter, solar cell

4. Transducers and Inverse Transducers- -A Transducer can be broadly defined as a device which
converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity. Ex:-Resistive, inductive and capacitive
transducers. An inverse transducer is defined as a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-
electrical quantity. Ex: Piezoelectric crystals

 SELECTION OF TRANSDUCER:
Factor to be considered while selecting transducer:
 It should have high input impedance and low output impedance, to avoid loading effect
 It should have good resolution over is entire selected range
 It must be highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to unwanted signal
 Preferably small in size. It should be able to work n corrosive environment
 It should be able to withstand pressure, shocks, vibrations etc..
 It must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability
 Selected transducer must be free from errors
 The transducer circuit should have overload protection so that it will withstand overloads.
In a measurement system the transducer is the input element with the critical function of transforming
some physical quantity to a proportional electrical signal. Selection of the appropriate transducer is
therefore the first and perhaps most important step in obtaining accurate results.
Transducer selection depending on the physical quantity to be measured is Determined by the
type and range of the measurand.
The accuracy requirements of the total system determine the degree to which
individual factors contributing to accuracy must be considered.
Some of the factors affecting accuracy are:
1. Fundamental transducer parameters: type and range of measurand, sensitivity, excitation
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 2. Physical conditions: mechanical and electrical connections, mounting provisions, corrosion
resistance
3. Ambient conditions: nonlinearity effects, hysteresis effects, frequency response, resolution
4. Environmental conditions: temperature effects, acceleration, shock and vibration
5. Compatibility of the associated equipment: zero balance provisions, sensitivity tolerance,
impedance matching, insulation resistance
The following is the summary of the factors influencing the choice of a transducer for
measurement of a physical quantity:
1. Operating principle
2. Sensitivity
3. Operating Range
4. Accuracy: it is the closeness with which the reading approaches an accepted standard value or ideal
value or true value of the variable being measured.
5.Cross Sensitivity: Situations where the actual quantity is measured in one plane and the
transducer is subjected lo variations in another plane.
6.Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-out relationship as
described by its transfer function so as to avoid errors.
7. Transient and Frequency Response: The transducer should meet desired time domain specifications
like peak overshoot, rise time, settling time and small dynamic error. It should ideally have a flat
frequency response curve.
8.Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input impedance and a low output
impedance to avoid loading effects.
9.Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the transducer selected to
work under specified environmental conditions maintains its input/ output relationship and does not break
down.
10.Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals: Transducer should be minimally sensitive to
unwanted signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.
11.Usage and Ruggedness: The ruggedness both of mechanical and electrical intensities of transducer
versus its size and weight must be considered while selecting a suitable transducer.
12.Electrical aspects: The Electrical aspects that need consideration while selecting a transducer include
the length and type of cable required. Attention also must be paid to signal to noise ratio in case the
transducer is to be used in conjunction with amplifiers.
13.Stability and Reliability: The transducers should exhibit a high degree of stability during its
operation and storage life. Reliability should be assured in case of failure of transducer in
order that the functioning of the instrumentation system continues unaffected.
14.Static Characteristics: Apart from low static error, the transducers should have a low
nonlinearity, low hysteresis, high resolution and a high degree of repeatability. The
transducer selected should be free from load alignment effects. It should
not need frequent calibration, should not have any component limitations, and should be
preferably small in size.
PROBLEMS:

1. In a test, temperature is measured 100 times with variations in apparatus and produces the
following results.
Temperature 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405
Frequency 2 4 10 24 36 14 5 3 2
Calculate the arithmetic mean, average deviation, the standard deviation and the probable
error of one reading.

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 2. A set of independent 10 measurement were made to determine the weighs of lead shot. The
weights are 1.570,1.597,1.591,1.562,1.577,1.580,1.564,1.586,1.550,1.575. Calculate the
arithmetic mean, average deviation, the standard deviation and the probable error of one
reading

Answer:
Arithmetic Mean=1.575
Average deviation=0.0224/10= 0.00224
Standard deviation= 0.0141
Variance= 0.00019
Probable error of one reading= 0.0095
Probable error of mean value= 0.0045

3. Three 250 Ω, 500 Ω and 375 Ω resistors are connected in parallel. The 250 Ω resistor has a
+0.014 fractional error. Determine The total resistance neglecting errors, Total resistance
considering the error of each resistor and The fractional error of the total resistance based
upon the rated values. (6)

Answer:
Series: R=R1+R2

4. The nominal value of the resistor is 100 ohms. And the limiting error of the resistance is ±10
ohms. The magnitude of the actual value of the resistance lies between the Aa ≥ 90 ohms and
Aa ≤110 ohms. Or the magnitude of the limiting error lies between the 90 to 110 ohms.

Answer: Consider that the nominal value As = 100Ω and δA = ±10Ω
εγ
ε γ=
As
10
Relative limiting error ε r=¿ ± =± 0.1 
100
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Percentage Limiting error % E r=0.1∗100=±10 %
and limiting value of resistance Aa =A s ( 1 ± E r )=100 ( 1 ± 0.1 )=100 ±10 Ω

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