UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY
MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT

INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT

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 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

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 1. INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT

 Measurements has become a natural part of our

everyday life.
 Taking measurements in industry constitute 10-15%
of production cost.
 It is well-known saying that knowledge about
anything is complete only when it can be expressed
in numbers & something is known about it.

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 1. INTRODUCTION….
WHAT IS MEASUREMENT:

 Measurement is a procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared

with a known standard, using an accepted and consistent system of units.
 Measurement is a word used to tell us about physical quantities such as
length, weight, temperature, pressure, force, etc…
 In modern technology, the measurement quantity are not necessarily
carried out by mechanical means, it involves the use of electrical and
electronic techniques.

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 1. INTRODUCTION….
CALIBRATION:
 Calibration is a process of determine and adjusting an
instrument’s accuracy to make sure its accuracy is with in the
manufacturer’s specifications.
 Improper calibration measurement user can take false data
or fail parts can pass as good in case of inspection
MEASURAND:
 Physical quantity
being measured.

Fig. 1.1 Fundamental measuring processes

 1.1 NEED FOR MEASUREMENT
 To study some basic laws of nature
 To check the limitation of theory in practical situation.
 To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
 To provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no faulty product
reaches the customers.
 To judge the possibility of making some of the defective parts
acceptable after minor repairs.
 To coordinate the functions of quality control, production,
procurement & other departments of the organization.
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 1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENT

 Measurement provides the fundamental basis for research and

development activities. In research activity, the experimental part is
based on measurement.
 Measurement is fundamental element of any automatic control
system.
 Measurement is used to evaluate the performance of any plant or
process.
 Measurement is also the basis for commercial activities such as
production, pricing, sale and purchase.
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 1.3 STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT

 A known accurate measure of physical quantity is termed

as standard.
 Different standards have been developed for various units
including fundamental as well as derived units.
 The standards of measurement are classified

1. Primary standards

2. Secondary standards

3. Working standards

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 1.3 STANDARD …
1. Primary standards
 These standards are copies of international prototype
and kept throughout the world in national standard
laboratory. The primary standards are not available for
use outside the national laboratories.
 The primary standard used as a reference for the
purpose of verification and calibration of secondary
standards.
 The characteristics of primary standards are long time
stability, rigidity of construction, accuracy of machining.
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 1.3 STANDARD …
Example: Primary(international) Standard- Meter prototype
found in France
 1meter is the same as path traveled by light in vacuum
during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second

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Fig. 1.2 prototype meter

 1.3 STANDARD …
2. Secondary standards
 The secondary standard designed and calibrated from
primary standards.
 These standards periodically sent to the national standard
laboratories for their calibration. After comparison and
calibration, the national standards laboratory returns the
secondary standards to the particular industrial laboratory
with certification.
 These standards are kept by the measurement laboratories
and the industrial organization to check and calibrate the
general tools for their accuracy and precision.
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 1.3 STANDARD …

3. Working standards

 Working standards are the main tools of a measuring

laboratory. These standards are used to check and
calibrate the laboratory instruments for accuracy and
performance.
 These standards are used by the worker and the
technicians who actually carry out the measurements.

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1.3 STANDARD …

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Fig.1.3 Hierarchy of standards

 1.7 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
 To specify and perform calculations with physical quantities, the
physical quantities must be defined both in kind and magnitude.
The standard measuring of each kind of physical quantity is the
unit.
 There are different system of units available in different countries
but for the sake of uniformity units all over the world, S.I units
(system international units ) has been developed. The S.I units are
divided in to three categories
1. Fundamental units
2. Derived units
3. Supplementary units 14
 1.7 UNITS OF...
1. Fundamental units: fundamental units are not dependent
on any other units. It is also call as base unit. The seven
fundamental units.

Table1.1 Fundamental units

No. Quantities standard unit symbol

1. Length meter m
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time second s
4. Electric current ampere A
5. Temperature kelvin K
6. Amount of substance mole mol 15

7. Luminous intensity candela cd

 1.7 UNITS OF...
2. Supplementary units: there are two supplementary units
added to the S.I. unit system in addition to fundamental
units

Table1.2 Supplementary units

No. Quantities Standard unit Symbol

1. Plane angle radian rad
2. Solid angle steradian sr

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 1.7 UNITS OF...
2. Derived units: The derived units are expressed in terms of
the fundamental and supplementary units by defining
equations. These derived units can be categorized as follows.
Table1.3 Derived units
No. Quantities Standard unit Symbol
1. Area Square meter m2
2. Volume Cubic meter m2
3. Velocity Meter per second m/s
4. Density Kilogram per cubic meter Kg/m3
5. Force Newton N
6. pressure Pascal Pa 17

7. Work, Energy Joule J(N.m)

 1.8 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 Instruments classified based on their application, mode of
operation, manner of energy conversion, and the nature of
output signal is given below

1. Deflection and null type instruments

2. Analog and digital instruments

3. Active and passive type instruments

4. Manual and automatic instruments

5. Absolute and secondary instruments

6. Contacting and non-contacting instruments

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 1.8 MEASURING ...
1. Deflection and null type instruments

 In a deflection type instrument, the measured quantity generates

some effect which can be ultimately related by the deflection of a
pointer displayed as a number, to its magnitude.
 Consider simple example of measuring the weight.
The weight of the object is indicated by the
deflection or movement of a pointer on a
graduated scale. In this case the weight of
the object generates the effect of elongation
of spring which is indicated by a pointer
on scale
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Fig. 1.7 Spring balance

 1.8 MEASURING ...
1. Deflection and null type instruments

 In null type instruments, the effect caused by the quantity to be

measured is nullified. The required nullifying effect provides a
measure of the magnitude quantity being measured.
 Consider the measurement of weight by beam balance
The unknown weight placed in one side
causes the beam and the pointer to deflect.
Weights of known value are placed on the
other side till a balanced or null condition
is indicated by the pointer.
Null type instrument more accurate and
sensitive than deflective type instruments.
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Fig. 1.8 Beam balance

 1.8 MEASURING ...
2. Analog and Digital instruments

 The analog instrument gives the output which varies in a continuous

manner as the quantity being measured changes, and can take infinite
values in a given range.

Example: voltmeter, ammeter, pressure gauge , fuel gauge etc

 The digital instrument give the output which varies in a discrete steps
and can take only finite number of values in a given range. The output
of a digital instrument is generally displayed numerically as digits.
 The digital devices have the following advantage
 High accuracy, Elimination of observational error etc…

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 1.8 MEASURING ...
3. Active and passive type instruments

 In active instruments, the quantity being measured just

activates the magnitude of some external power input
source which in turn produce the measurement. In this type
of instruments, another external energy input source is
present apart from the quantity to be measured.

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Fig. 1.9 liquid level indicator

 1.8 MEASURING ...
3. Active and passive type instruments

 In passive type instruments, output is produced entirely

by quantity being measured. The resolution of the passive
instrument is less and cannot increased easily.
 But in the case of active
instrument, the control
over resolution can be
achieved by adjusting
the magnitude of the
external energy input
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Fig. 1.9 liquid level indicator

 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 The measurement system characteristics are to be known, to
choose an instrument that most suited to a particular
measurement application.
 The performance characteristics may be broadly divided into
two groups, namely ‘static’ and ‘dynamic’ characteristics.

1. Static characteristics of instruments

2. Dynamic Characteristics of instruments.

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 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
1. Static characteristics of instruments
o Refers to the comparison between steady output
and ideal output when the input is constant.
o The performance criteria for the measurement of quantities
that remain constant, or vary only quite slowly.
o The main static characteristics are :-

1. Accuracy 5. Sensitivity 9. Stability

2. Precision 6. Threshold 10. Range or Span
3. Reproducibility 7 Static error 11. Bais
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4. Drift 8. Dead zone 12. Hysteresis

 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
Accuracy
o Accuracy is the degree of agreement between the measured value
and it’s true value.
o Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual (true) value.
o The difference between the measured value & the true value is
known as ‘Error of measurement’.
o Example: the centre of the target

is the true value

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 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
Precision
o Precision defined as the capability of an instrument to show the
same reading when used each time (reproducibility of instruments).
o There is no meaning for only one measurement, precision exists only
when a set of observations is gathered for the same quantity under
identical conditions.
o Example: the centre of the target

is the true value

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 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
o An equipment which is precise is not necessarily accurate.
But all accurate reading also precise measurement.

The center of
the target is
the true value.

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 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
o An equipment which is precise is not necessarily accurate.
But all accurate reading also precise measurement.

Nature of Both Precise Neither

accuracy and accurate only accurate nor
and precise precise
precision
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 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
Reproducibility
o The closeness of agreement among the repeated measurements of the output
for the same value of input under the same operating conditions over a
period of time.
Repeatability
o The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of
the output for the same value of input under the same operating condition.
Drift
o The variation of change in output or a given input over a period of
time known as drift

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 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
Sensitivity
o Sensitivity of the instrument is the ratio of the magnitude
of output to the magnitude of input of an instrument .
o The manufactures specify sensitivity as the ratio of
magnitude of the measured quantity to the magnitude of
the response. This ratio is called deflection factor.
o Sensitivity is constant when the calibration curve is
linear. However , if the calibration curve non-linear the
sensitivity is different at different point.
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 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
Static error
o The degree to which an instrument approaches to its excepted value is expressed terms of error of
measurement.

Stability
o The ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its specified operating life and
storage life termed as stability.

Range or Span
o The minimum and maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure is called
its range or span.

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 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
Bias
o The constant error which exists over the full range of measurement of an instrument is called
bias.
o Such a bais can be completely eliminated by calibration.

o The zero error is an example of bais which can be removed by calibration.

Hysteresis
o Maximum difference for the same measured quantity between the upscale and down scale
readings during a full transverse in each direction

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 2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
2. Dynamic characteristics of instruments
o These type of instruments are normally used for the
measurement of quantities that fluctuate with time.
o In many practical cases, the parameter to be measured
are time-varying. Thus, the output of an instrument is
also time varying. The characteristics of an instrument
under such time varying input-output conditions is called
dynamic characteristics of an instruments.
o Dynamic characteristics of a measurement system are:
1. Speed of response 4. Dynamic error
2. Measuring lag 5. Overshoot
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3. Fidelity
2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
1. Speed of response:
o It is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument responds to
a change in the value of the quantity being measured. It shows
how active and fast the system is.
2. Measuring lag:
o It is defined as the retardation or delay, in the response of a
system to the changes in the input. The lags are of two types:
 Retardation lag: As soon as there is a changes in the measured
quantity, the measurement system begins to respond.
 Time delay: The response of the measurement system starts after
a dead time, once the input is applied.

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2. STATIC AND DYNAMICS...
3. Fidelity:
o It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system is
capable of faithfully reproducing the changes in input, without
any dynamic error.
o It refers to the ability of the system to reproduce the output in
the same form as the input.
4. Dynamic error:
o It is the difference between the true value of the quantity that is
to be measured, changing with time and the measured value, if
no static error is assumed.

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