Introduction to Instrumentation Engineering

Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts

By Sintayehu Challa

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Goals of this chapter
• Give an overview of fundamental concepts and
terminologies in instrumentation and measurement
systems
• Discuss system of units

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Overview
• Definition of Instrumentation System
• General Instrumentation system
• Applications of Instrumentation Systems
• Systems of Units and Standards of measurement

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Instrumentation System - Definition
• Instrumentation system
• An assembly of various instruments and/or components
interconnected to measure, analyze and control various physical
quantities (variables)

• Physical quantities can be classified in a number of ways

• Electrical-quantities: Voltage, current, resistance, inductance,
capacitance, electrical power, electrical energy
• Non-electrical quantities: Pressure, displacement, torque,
temperature, illumination, etc

• Instrument is a device for determining the value or

magnitude of a quantity or variable

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Definition …
• Measurement: Act or the result of a quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard and an
unknown magnitude
1. Direct comparison with either a primary or a secondary standard
2. Indirect comparison with a standard through the use of a
calibrated system
• E.g., water level by a capacitor, temperature by a resistor
• An empirical relation is established between the measurement
actually made and the results that are desired

• There are two requirements that must be met

• Standard which is used for comparison must be accurately defined
and commonly accepted
• Procedure and apparatus employed for obtaining the comparison
must be provable
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Overview
• Definition of Instrumentation system
• General Instrumentation system
• Different types of measurement systems
• Systems of Units and Standards of measurement

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General Instrumentation System
• The purpose of an instrumentation (measurement) system
is to present an observer with a numerical value
corresponding to the variable being measured

Input Output
variable variable

Observer
System being Measurement
measured system
Or Measured
True value of a value of
variable variable

• Most general instrumentation systems consists of four

distinct functional elements

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Functional Elements of Instrumentation System

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Contd.

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 General Instrumentation …

Signal Signal
Sensing conversion/ Output
conditioning
element processing presentation
element
element
Non-electrical Electrical
quantity signal

• Description of the block diagram

a. Sensing element: Called transducer or sensor and is useful if the
quantity is non-electrical
b. Signal conditioner: Example are amplifiers, bridges, attenuation
c. Signal conversion: A/D and D/A converters
d. Output presentation: Recorder (graphic, magnetic, digital) or
indicators (pointer-scale, alpha numeric, graphic)
• Each functional element may have one or more
components in the same instrument
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a. Sensing Element
• Sensing element also called sensor or transducer
• Is a primary sensing element which receives energy from
the measured medium and produces an output
• Converts non-electrical quantity to a corresponding
electrical quantity
• If there are more than one sensing elements in a system,
the element in contact with the process (input) is termed
the primary sensing element, the other is the secondary
sensing element

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a. Sensing Element …
• Usually the input physical effect is transformed into another
physical output, in most cases to electrical signals
• Sensing element is required when measurement of a non-electrical
quantity is made
• Generate voltage/current variation in response to variation of the
quantity under interest
• Examples:
• Thermocouple: input of temperature and an output of a small e.m.f.
• Resistance thermometer : input of temperature and an output of a
resistance change

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a. Sensing Element – Examples

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b. Signal Conditioning Element
• In most cases, the output of the sensor or the element
quantity to be measured is so small
• Not suitable to the output presentation section

• The signal conditioning element converts the signal into a

form matching the characteristics of the output device (or
more suitable for further processing)
• Example
• Bridges: Convert an impedance change into a voltage change
• Amplifiers: Converts mille volt to volts
• Oscillators: Impedance change into a variable frequency voltage
• Filters: Filters unwanted frequency range

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c. Signal Conversion Element
• Converts the output of the signal conditioning element into
a form more suitable for presentation
• Signal conversion is necessary only when digital
techniques are required
• Example: Analog-to-digital converter

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d. Data Presentation Element
• This presents the measure value in a form which can be
easily recognized by the observer
• For presentation as an indication on an instrument or recording in
a graphical presentation
• Example:
• Pointer-scale indicator
• Chart recorder
• Visual display unit

• In a typical system, one part may be missing or may occur

more than once
• The final terminating stage may also include data-
transmission element for storage/playback

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Example: Piston Pressure Gage
• Piston: Primary sensing
element and variable
conversion element
• Piston rod: Data
transmission element
• Spring: Variable conversion
element
• Linkage: Variable
manipulation element
• Pointer and Scale: Data
presentation element

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Example: Pressure Thermometer
• Bulb: Primary sensing element and variable conversion element
• Tubing: Data transmission Bourdon Tube: Variable conversion
element
• Linkage and gear:
Variable manipulation
element
• Scale and Pointer: Data
presentation

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Overview
• Definition of Instrumentation system
• General Instrumentation system
• Applications of measurement systems
• Monitoring of processes and operations
• Control of processes and operations
• Experimental analysis
• Systems of Units and Standards of measurement

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Applications of measurement
• Applications of measurement systems includes
1. Monitoring (or measurement ) of processes and operations
2. Control of processes and operations (i.e., system control)
3. Experimental analysis

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1. Monitoring of Processes and Operations
• Instruments that measure physical quantities such as
length, volume and mass in terms of standard units
• E.g., in weather bureau, instruments such as thermometers,
barometers and anemometers are used to serve the purpose of
monitoring
• E.g., water and electric meters for domestic use have similar
functions (allows the company to determine the charge)

• Measurement system displays or records a quantified

output corresponding to the variable input quantity
• They simply indicate the condition of the environment and the
readings do not serve any control function

• If action is taken based on this measurements, then the

measurement serves a control function

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2. Processes and Operations Control
• Measuring instrument serves as a component of an
automatic control system
• Basically in a control system
• To control the variable, it is first necessary to measure it
• Measurement provides information that enables human beings to
take some prescribed action accordingly

• Control action
• Open-loop control
• Closed-loop control

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2. Processes and Operations …
• Open-loop system
• The basis of open-loop control is that the system is controlled by
a signal which is a pre-set value (reference value)

Input signal System

Output signal
(Preset value or Controller under (required signal)
reference value) control

• Signal: In electrical engineering could mean voltage or current

• Controller are required to

a. Compare the output variable with the desired value of the
controlled variable and
b. Reacts by sending message to the control element to take
corrective action

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2. Processes and Operations …
• Close-loop system
• Measures the value of the parameter being controlled at the
output of a system and compares to a desired signal
• Automatic feedback control system

• Example:
• Greenhouse: A thermometer is used to determine whether a
heat should be turned on or open windows
System
Controller under
Desires signal control Output signal

Measurement
system

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2. Processes and Operations …
• Example: A temperature control system
• Temperature Ta (i.e., controlled variable) of a room is maintained at
a reference value Td
• Ta, as determined by a temperature-measuring device, is
compared with Td, and the difference is applied as an error signal
to the heater
• The heater then modifies the room temperature until Ta = Td

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3. Experimental Analysis
• To solve engineering problems two general methods are
available: theoretical and experimental
• Many problems require the application of both methods
• Normally, they complement each other

• Complex situations are often dealt by experimental

methods, e.g., convection heat transfer relations
• Frontier knowledge often require very extensive
experimental studies since adequate theories are not
available yet

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3. Experimental Analysis …
• Types of Experimental-Analysis Problems
• Testing the validity of theoretical predictions
• Formulation of generalized empirical relationships
• Determination of material, component, and system parameters,
variables, and performance indices
• Study of phenomena with hopes of developing a theory
• Solution of mathematical equations by means of analogies

• For any successful experiment, it has to be designed

carefully and this requires specifying the physical variables
to be investigated and their role in later analytical works
• This will help to procure appropriate instrumentation
• It is here where a thorough knowledge of the governing principles
of instruments will be required

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3. Experimental Analysis …
• In all the above three processes, accurate measurement
will include the specification of the degree of accuracy
• This indicates the limitations of the instruments that
account for certain random and/or regular errors which
may be present in the experimental data
• Statistical techniques are used for analyzing data to
determine expected errors and deviations from the true
measurements
• Discussed in Chapter latter

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Overview
• Definition of Instrumentation System
• General Instrumentation system
• Applications of measurement systems
• Systems of Units and Standards of measurement
• System of Units
• Standard of measurement system

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Systems of Units
• Fundamental units: The smallest set of quantities that are
accepted by definition
• Example: In mechanical system, length, mass and time

• Derived units: Units expressed in terms of the fundamental

units
• Each derived unit originates from some physical law which defines
that unit
• Example: Velocity = ∆d/ ∆t has unit m/s or ms-1
• A derived unit is recognized by the dimensions and can be
defined as the complete algebraic formula for the derived
unit
• Dimensional symbols for the fundamental units for the
fundamental units of length, mass, & time are L, M, & T

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Systems of Units …
• In general, system of units in engineering are divided into
1. Foot-Pound-Second (FPS)
2. Foot-Slug-Second (FSS)
3. Centimeter-Gram-Second (CGS)
4. Meter-Kilogram-Second (MKS)

• English System of Units: FPS and FSS

• Mechanical System of Units: CGS and MKS
• System of International (SI) unit: The most recent and
widely accepted system of unit

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Systems of Units …
• The SI system of units with seven Fundamental quantities
are defined as
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin 0k

Illumination Candela Cd
Amount of Mole mol
substance

• All other quantities defined by the basic SI unit are called

Derived quantities
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Systems of Units …
• Conversion of Units: It is often necessary to convert
physical quantities from one system of unit into another
• Example: The floor area of a class-room measures 30ft by
24ft. Calculate the floor area in m2
• Solution
• We find that 1cm=0.0328 ft or 1m = 3.28ft
• A=30ft X 24 ft = 720 ft2
• Or A = 720 ft2 X (1/3.28ft)2 = 67.3 m2

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Standard of Measurement System
• The standard is the physical representation of the units
defined in the system of units
• Different standards of measurement exist
• Differ in their functional and hierarchy
• Have different levels of accuracy
1. International standard (IS)
• Defined by international agreement
• Represent certain units of measurements to the closest possible
accuracy that the production and measurement technology allow
• IS are the highest accuracy standards
2. Primary standards (PS)
• Maintained by International standard laboratories in different part
of the world
• Used for verification and calibration of secondary standards

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Standard of Measurement …
3. Secondary standards
• Are the basic reference standards in industrial measurement
laboratories
4. Working standards are
• Principal tools of a measurement laboratory
• Used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for
accuracy
• All standards are checked by the highest or greater
standard
• The better instrument is checked by 10:1 accuracy ratio

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