Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts

Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation

(Introduction to Instrumentation Engineering)

Debre Markos University

ደብረ ማርቆስ ዩኒቨርስቲ
Debre Markos Institute of Technology
ደብረ ማርቆስ ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
 Goals of this Chapter

• Give an overview of fundamental concepts and

terminologies in instrumentation and measurement
systems
• Discuss system of units

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 Overview

• Definition of Instrumentation System

• General Instrumentation system
• Applications of Instrumentation Systems
• Systems of Units and Standards of measurement

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Instrumentation System - Definition
• Instrumentation system
• An assembly of various instruments and/or components
interconnected to measure, analyze and control various physical
quantities (variables).
• Physical quantities can be classified in a number
of ways
• Electrical-quantities: Voltage, current, resistance, inductance,
capacitance, electrical power, electrical energy
• Non-electrical quantities: Pressure, displacement, torque,
temperature, illumination, etc.
• Instrument is a device for determining the value
or magnitude of a quantity or variable.

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 Definition…
• Measurement: is the result of a quantitative comparison between
a predefined standard and an unknown magnitude
1. Direct comparison with either a primary or a secondary
standard
2. Indirect comparison with a standard through the use of a
calibrated system
• E.g., water level by a capacitor, temperature by a resistor
• An empirical relation is established between the
measurement actually made and the results that are desired
• There are two requirements that must be met
• Standard which is used for comparison must be accurately
defined and commonly accepted
• Procedure and apparatus employed for obtaining the
comparison must be provable

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 General Instrumentation System
• The purpose of an instrumentation (measurement) system is to present an
observer with a numerical value corresponding to the variable being
measured

Figure 1.1 Purpose of measurement system

• Most general instrumentation systems consists of four distinct functional
elements
Quantity to be Sensing Signal Signal Output
elements conditioning conversion presentation
Measured
elements (processing) elements
(measurand) elements
Figure 1.2 General structure of measurement system

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Functional Elements of Instrumentation System
Data
storage and
playback
elements
Quantity
to be
Primary Variable Variable Data observer
measured sensing conversion manipulation transmissio Data
element elements elements n elements presentation
s elements

Figure 1.3 functional elements of an instrument system

• Description of the block diagram
a. Sensing element: Called transducer or sensor and is useful if the quantity is
non-electrical
b. Signal conditioner: Example are amplifiers, bridges, attenuation
c. Signal conversion: A/D and D/A converters
d. Output presentation: Recorder (graphic, magnetic, digital) or indicators
(pointer-scale, alpha numeric, graphic)
• Each functional element may have one or more components in the same
instrument 7
 Sensing elements
• This is an element which comes first in contact with the process and gives an
output which depends in some way on the variable to be measured.
• Sensing element also called sensor or transducer
• Converts non-electrical quantity to a corresponding electrical quantity
• If there are more than one sensing elements in a system, the element in contact
with the process (input) is termed the primary sensing element, the other is the
secondary sensing element
• Usually the input physical effect is transformed into another physical output, in
most cases to electrical signals
• Sensing element is required when measurement of a non-electrical quantity
is made
• Generate voltage/current variation in response to variation of the quantity
under interest
• Examples:
• Thermocouple: input of temperature and an output of a small e.m.f.
• Resistance thermometer : input of temperature and an output of a
resistance change

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Cont.…

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Signal Conditioning Element
 In most cases, the output of the sensor or the element quantity to be measured
is so small
 Not suitable to the output presentation section

 The signal conditioning element converts the signal into a form matching the
characteristics of the output device (or more suitable for further processing)
 Example
 Bridges: Convert an impedance change into a voltage change
 Amplifiers: Converts Mille volt to volts
 Oscillators: Impedance change into a variable frequency voltage
 Filters: Filters unwanted frequency range

• when the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary to

transmit the data from one stage to other. Note that this element is not a subject of
discussion in this course; enthusiastic students are encouraged to read on this
subject elsewhere.

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Signal Conversion Element

 Converts the output of the signal conditioning element

into a form more suitable for presentation
 Signal conversion is necessary only when digital
techniques are required
 Example: Analog-to-digital converter
 Computer which calculates the measured value
of the variable from the incoming digital data.

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 Data Presentation Element
 This presents the measure value in a form which can be easily recognized by
the observer
 For presentation as an indication on an instrument or recording in a graphical
presentation
 communicates the information about the measurand to the human observer or
presents it in an intelligible form. The presented data may be used by the system
for monitoring, controlling, or analyzing purposes.
 Example:
 Pointer-scale indicator
 Chart recorder
 Visual display unit

 In a typical system, one part may be missing or may occur more than once
 The final terminating stage may also include data-transmission element
for storage/playback

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Application of Measurement system
 Monitoring of processes and operations
 Control of processes and operations
 Experimental analysis

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Monitoring of Processes and Operations
 present desired information about the conditions of a system in the form of
visual indicator, registering or recording, monitoring or suitable
transmission.
 Instruments that measure physical quantities such as length, volume and
mass in terms of standard units
 E.g., in weather bureau, instruments such as thermometers, barometers and
anemometers are used to serve the purpose of monitoring
 E.g., water and electric meters for domestic use have similar functions
(allows the company to determine the charge)

 Measurement system displays or records a quantified output corresponding

to the variable input quantity
 They simply indicate the condition of the environment and the readings
do not serve any control function

 If action is taken based on this measurements, then the measurement serves a

control function

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Processes and Operations Control
 Measuring instrument serves as a component of an
automatic control system
 Basically in a control system
 To control the variable, it is first necessary to measure
it
 Measurement provides information that enables human
beings to take some prescribed action accordingly
 Control action
 Open-loop control
 Closed-loop control

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Cont.…
 Open-loop system
 The basis of open-loop control is that the system is controlled
by a signal which is a pre-set value (reference value)

 Signal: In electrical engineering could mean voltage or current

 Controller are required to

a. Compare the output variable with the desired value of the
controlled variable and
b. Reacts by sending message to the control element to take
corrective action 16
Cont.…
 Close-loop system
 Measures the value of the parameter being controlled at the output of a
system and compares to a desired signal
 Automatic feedback control system
 automatic control systems which in turn provides deliberate guidance or manipulation
to maintain a set-point or to change variables according to a preset program.

 Example:
 Greenhouse: A thermometer is used to determine whether a heat should be
turned on or open windows

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 Cont.…
 Example: A temperature control system
 Temperature Ta (i.e., controlled variable) of a room is maintained at a
reference value Td
 Ta, as determined by a temperature-measuring device, is compared
with Td, and the difference is applied as an error signal to the heater
 The heater then modifies the room temperature until Ta = Td

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 Experimental Analysis
 To solve engineering problems two general methods are available:
theoretical and experimental
 Many problems require the application of both methods
 Normally, they complement each other
 Complex situations are often dealt by experimental methods,
e.g., convection heat transfer relations
 Frontier knowledge often require very extensive experimental
studies since adequate theories are not available yet
 Verification of physical phenomena/scientific theories
 experiments are conducted to formulate certain empirical relations where
adequate theory does not exist. Furthermore, experiments motivated by the hope
of developing new theories, discovering new phenomena or checking the
validity of certain hypothesis require measurement systems.

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 Cont.…
• Example:
• Coulomb postulated that the friction between two dry
surfaces is proportional to the normal reaction and
is independent of the area of contact. His hypothesis
has since been verified experimentally and is
known as Coulomb’s law of dry friction.

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 Systems of Units and Standards of measurement
 System of Units
 Standard of measurement system
 Fundamental units: The smallest set of quantities that are accepted by
definition
 Example: In mechanical system, length, mass and time
 Derived units: Units expressed in terms of the fundamental units
 Each derived unit originates from some physical law which defines that
unit
 Example: Velocity = has unit or ms-1
 In general, system of units in engineering are divided into
1. Foot-Pound-Second (FPS)
2. Foot-Slug-Second (FSS)
3. Centimeter-Gram-Second (CGS)
4. Meter-Kilogram-Second (MKS)

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 Standard of Measurement System
 The standard is the physical representation of the units defined in the
system of units
 Different standards of measurement exist
 Differ in their functional and hierarchy
 Have different levels of accuracy
1. International standard (IS)
 Defined by international agreement
 Represent certain units of measurements to the closest possible
accuracy that the production and measurement technology allow
 IS are the highest accuracy standards
2. Primary standards (PS)
 Maintained by International standard laboratories in different part of
the world
 Used for verification and calibration of secondary standards

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 Cont..
3. Secondary standards
 Are the basic reference standards in industrial measurement laboratories
4. Working standards are
 Principal tools of a measurement laboratory
 Used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for accuracy
 All standards are checked by the highest or greater standard
Exercise (1)
• Describe the fundamental units of measurement and the standards defined
to maintain them.
• What is the difference between sensor and transducer.
Exercise (2)
Based on the fundamental units, obtain the SI units for the following derived
quantities:
• Resistance, ohm (Ω)
• Capacitance, Farad(F)
• Inductance, Henry (H)
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THANK YOU…..

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