ECE 311: Measurement & Instrumentation

Course Unit: 2

Books
1. Basic Concepts of Measurement, by Brian Ellis ,isbn: 9780521095563
2. undamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement by Editor(s): Dominique Placko, Published
Online: 12 JAN 2010, Print ISBN: 9781905209392, Online ISBN: 9780470612026
3. A.D. Helfrick, and W.D. Cooper, “Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques” Prentice Hall, 1994.
4. D.A. Bell, “Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements”, 2nd ed., Prentice Hell, 1994.
5. Introduction to INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS Second Edition by Robert B.
Northrop

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 Basic Concepts of Measurement
INTRODUCTION

The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a quantitative comparison between a
predefined Standard and Measurand.

The word Measurand is used to designate the particular physical parameter being observed and
quantified; that is, the input quantity to the measuring process. (A physical quantity, property or
condition to be measured)

A Measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical variable. That physical variable
becomes the Measured Variable.

The Generalized Measurement System

Most measurement system may consist of part or all of four general stages:
a) A sensor – Transducer Stage.

b) An Intermediate Stage or signal – Conditioning Stage.

c) A Terminating Stage – Output Stage.

d) Feedback – Control Stage

Sensor – Transducer Stage

The primary function of the first stage is to detect or to sense the physical variable (Measurand) and
performs either a mechanical or an electrical transformation to convert the signal into a more usable
form.

The sensor is a physical element that employs some natural phenomenon by which it senses the variable
being measured. The transducer converts this sensed information into a detectable signal form, which
might be electrical, mechanical, optical, etc. In most cases, however, the physical variable is transformed
into an electric signal because this is the form of signal that is most easily measured.

Signal – Conditioning Stage

The purpose of the second stage is to take the transducer signal and modifies by amplification, filtering
or other means so that a desirable output is available.

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Output Stage
Provides an indication of the value of the measurement. The output equipment might be a simple
readout display a marked scale or might contain devices that can record the signal for later analysis.
Examples of these devices are tape recorders, chart recorders and computer disk drives.

Feedback – Control Stage

In those measurement systems involved in process control a fourth stage the feedback control stage,
contains a controller that interprets the measured signal and makes a decision regarding the control of
the process. This decision results in a change in a process parameter that affects the magnitude of the
sensed variable. It is very important to realize that the accuracy of control cannot be any better than the
accuracy of the measurement of the control variable. Therefore one must be able to measure a physical
variable accurately before one can hope to control the variable.

A schematic diagram of the generalized measurement system is shown below.

Some Useful Definitions

Transducer
A device which converts a signal from one physical form to a corresponding signal having a different
physical form. (energy converter)
Sensor (input transducer)
A device converts the physical or non-physical signal which is to be measured into an electrical signal
which can be processed or transmitted electronically. (physical signal/electrical signal)
Actuator (output transducer)
A device converts the modified electrical signal into a nonelectrical signal. (electrical signal/physical
signal)

Calibration: A test in which known values of the input are applied to a measurement system (or sensor)
for the purpose of observing the system (or sensor) output.

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Dynamic calibration: When the variables of interest are time dependent and time-based information is
need. The dynamic calibration determines the relationship between an input of known dynamic behavior
and the measurement system output.

Static calibration: A calibration procedure in which the values of the variable involved remain constant
(do not change with time).

Signal domains with examples

Mechanical
Length, area, volume, all time derivatives such as linear/angular velocity/acceleration, mass flow, force ,
torque, pressure, acoustic wavelength and intensity
Thermal
Temperature, (specific) heat, entropy, heat flow, state of matter
Electrical
Voltage, current,charge, resistance, inductance, capacitance, dielectric constant, polarization, electric
field, frequency, dipole moment
Magnetic
Field intensity, flux density, magnetic moment, permeability
Radiant
Intensify, phase, wavelength, polarization, reflectance, transmittance, refractive index
Chemical
Composition, concentration, reaction rate, pH, oxidation/reduction potential

Basically there are three types of measuring instruments and they are
(a) Electrical measuring instruments
(b) Mechanical measuring instruments.
(c) Electronic measuring instruments.

Following are the important three functions of the electrical measuring instruments.

Indicating Function
These instruments provide information regarding the variable quantity under measurement and most of
the time this information are provided by the deflection of the pointer. This kind of function is known as
the indicating function of the instruments.

Recording Function
These instruments usually use the paper in order to record the output. This type of function is known as
the recording function of the instruments.

Controlling Function
This is function is widely used in industrial world. In this these instruments controls the processes.
Now there are two characteristics of electrical measuring instruments and measurement systems. They
are written below:

Static Characteristics
In these type of characteristics measurement of quantities are either constant or vary slowly with the
time. Few main static characteristics are written below:
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(1) Accuracy: It is desirable quality in measurement. It is defined as the degree of the closeness with
which instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity being measured. Accuracy can be
expressed in three ways (a) Point accuracy (b) Accuracy as the percentage of scale of range. (c)
Accuracy as percentage of true value.

(2) Sensitivity: It is also desirable quality in the measurement. It is defined as the ratio of the magnitude
response of the output signal to the magnitude response of the input signal.

(3) Reproducibility: It is again a desirable quality. It is defined as the degree of the closeness with which
a given quantity may be repeatedly measured. High value of reproducibility means low value of drift.
Drift are of three types (a) Zero drift (b) Span drift (c) Zonal drift.

Dynamic Characteristics
These characteristics are related with the rapidly changing quantities therefore in order to understand
these types of characteristics we are required to study the dynamic relations between the input and the
output.

Classification of measuring instruments

Instruments can be subdivided into separate classes according to several criteria. These
subclassifications are useful in broadly establishing several attributes of particular instruments such as
accuracy, cost, and general applicability to different applications.

Classification: Active and Passive

Passive or Self-generating Instrument: An instrument whose output energy is supplied entirely or
almost entirely by its input signal
Active or Modulating Instrument: An instrument has an auxiliary of power which supplies a major part
of the output power while the input signal supplies only an insignificant portion.

Classification: Null and Deflection Methods

Deflection-type: The measured quantity produced some physical effects that engenders a similar but
opposing effect in some part of the instrument. The opposing effect increases until a balance is achieved,
at which point the “deflection” is measured.
Null-type Method: a null-type device attempts to maintain deflection at zero by suitable application of a
known effect opposing the generated by the measured quantity. (a null detector and a means of restoring
balancing are necessary).

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Analog and Digital Instruments

Analog Instrument: An analog instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being
measured changes. The output can have an infinite number of values within the input range.

Digital Instruments: The digital instruments have an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only
have a finite number of values.

Errors in Measurements

Errors in measurements can arise from many causes; there are remedies for some types of errors, but
others haunt us as intrinsic properties of the measurement system under use, and often can be mitigated
by system redesign.

Gross Errors
These errors in a measurement can arise from such human mistakes as:
1. Reading the instrument before it has reached its steady state. This type of premature reading produces
a dynamic error
2. Not eliminating parallax when reading an analog meter scale, incorrect interpolation between analog
meter scale markings
3. Mistakes in recording measured data and in calculating a derived measurand
4. Misuse of the instrument. A simple example of this source of error is when a 10 V full scale analog
voltmeter of typical sensitivity (20,000 /V) is connected to a voltage source having a high Thevenin
resistance (100,000 ). Significant voltage is dropped across the internal (Thevenin) resistor

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System Errors
These errors can arise from such factors as:

1. The instrument is not calibrated, and has an offset (i.e. its sensitivity is off, and it needs zeroing. Loss
of calibration and zero error can occur because of long term component value changes due to ageing, or
changes associated with temperature rise

2. Reading uncertainty due to the presence of random noise. This noise can accompany the measurand
and can arise from the signal conditioning electronics in the system
(a) Noise from without is called environmental noise and can often be reduced by appropriate electric
and magnetic shielding, proper grounding and guarding practices. Environmental noise is often coherent
in nature and can come from poorly shielded radio frequency sources, such as computers or radio
stations. Powerline frequency electric and magnetic fields can be troublesome, as also ignition noise
(b) Significant, internally generated random noise may be shown to arise in the first stage of an
instrument’s signal conditioning amplifier. Some of this noise comes from resistors (Johnson or thermal
noise), some from the active elements (transistors) in the headstage and some from the quantization or
rounding off that is inherent in the operation of ADCs in modern digital instruments.

3. Slow, or long term drift in the system can destroy the certainty of static measurements (i.e.
measurements of measurands which are not varying in time). Drifts can cause slow changes in system
sensitivity and/or zero. Drift may arise as the result of a slow temperature change as a system warms up.
Many parameter values can change with temperature, such as capacitance, resistance, inductance, the
EMF of standard cells, the avalanche voltage of pn junctions, and so on. Humidity changes can also
affect circuit parameter values, including resistance and capacitance. Good system design involves
temperature regulation of the system, the use of low or zero tempco and sealed components. In
integrators such as charge amplifiers, output drift can also be caused by the integration of the op-amp’s
dc bias current.

Measurement of Circuit Parameters

Measurement of DC and AC signals

Electrical signals - time varying voltages and currents - in many cases have important properties that you
may have to measure. Sometime in the future you might have to make any of these kinds of
measurements.

Power in an audio signal - as you test an audio amplifier's output capability

Frequency - as you use an AC tachometer to measure a motor's rpm.
Amplitude - as you measure signal strength in a communication system.

When measuring the value of an alternating current (AC) signal it is often necessary to convert the
signal into a direct current signal of equivalent value (known as the root mean square, RMS value).

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There are lots of different properties of signals that you can measure. If we examine sinusoidal signals
we can note several properties of a sinusoidal signal we might want to measure. Those are the three
parameters you need to specify to describe a sinusoidal signal completely.

The mathematical function we use to describe a sinusoidal signal is a general sine function. Let's say
that we have a sinusoidal voltage signal, V(t). Then we must have:

V(t) = Vmaxsin(t + )
There are three parameters here.

 Vmax = amplitude,
  = angular frequency,
o And,  = 2f.
  = phase.

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Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument or PMMC Instrument
The permanent magnet moving coil instrument or PMMC type instrument uses two permanent magnets
in order to create stationary magnetic field. These types of instruments are only used for measuring the
dc quantities as if we apply ac current to these type of instruments the direction of current will be
reversed during negative half cycle and hence the direction of torque will also be reversed which gives
average value of torque zero. The pointer will not deflect due to high frequency from its mean position
showing zero reading. However it can measure the direct current very accurately.

Let us move towards the constructions of permanent magnet moving coil instruments. We will see the
construction of these types of instruments in five parts and they are described below:

(a) Stationary part or magnet system: In the present time we use magnets of high field intensities, high
coercive force instead of using U shaped permanent magnet having soft iron pole pieces. The magnets
which we are using nowadays are made up of materials like alcomax and alnico which provide high
field strength.

(b) Moving coil: The moving coil can freely moves between the two permanent magnets as shown in the
figure given below. The coil is wound with many turns of copper wire and is placed on rectangular
aluminium which is pivoted on jeweled bearings.

(c) Control system: The spring generally acts as control system for PMMC instruments. The spring also
serves another important function by providing the path to lead current in and out of the coil.

(d) Damping system: The damping force hence torque is provided by movement of aluminium former in
the magnetic field created by the permanent magnets.

(e) Meter: Meter of these instruments consists of light weight pointer to have free movement and scale
which is linear or uniform and varies with angle.
Let us derive a general expression for torque in permanent magnet moving coil instruments or PMMC
instruments. We know that in moving coil instruments the deflecting torque is given by the expression:

Td = NBldI where N is number of turns,

B is magnetic flux density in air gap,
l is the length of moving coil,
d is the width of the moving coil,
And I is the electric current.

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Now for a moving coil instruments deflecting torque should be proportional to current, mathematically
we can write Td = GI. Thus on comparing we say G = NBIdl. At steady state we have both the
controlling and deflecting torques are equal. Tc is controlling torque, on equating controlling torque with
deflection torque we have
GI = K.x where x is deflection thus current is given by

Since the deflection is directly proportional to the current therefore we need a uniform scale on the
meter for measurement of current.

Now we are going to discuss about the basic circuit diagram of the ammeter. Let us consider a circuit as
shown below:

The current I is shown which breaks into two components at the point A. The two components are Is and
Im. Before I comment on the magnitude values of these currents, let us know more about the
construction of shunt resistance. The basic properties of shunt resistance are written below,
The electrical resistance of these shunts should not differ at higher temperature, it they should posses
very low value of temperature coefficient. Also the resistance should be time independent. Last and the
most important property they should posses is that they should be able to carry high value of current
without much rise in temperature. Usually manganin is used for making dc resistance. Thus we can say
that the value of Is much greater than the value of Im as resistance of shunt is low. From the we have,

Where Rs is resistance of shunt and Rm is the electrical resistance of the coil.

From the above two equations we can write,

Where m is the magnifying power of the shunt.

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Errors in Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
There are three main types of errors:
(a) Errors due to permanent magnets: Due to temperature effects and aging of the magnets the magnet
may lose their magnetism to some extent. The magnets are generally aged by the heat and vibration
treatment.
(b) Error may appear in PMMC Instrument due to the aging of the spring. However the error caused by
the aging of the spring and the errors caused due to permanent magnet are opposite to each other, hence
both the errors are compensated with each other.
(c) Change in the resistance of the moving coil with the temperature: Generally the temperature
coefficients of the value of coefficient of copper wire in moving coil is 0.04 per degree celsius rise in
temperature. Due to lower value of temperature coefficient the temperature rises at faster rate and hence
the resistance increases. Due to this significant amount of error is caused.

Applications of PMMC

The PMMC has a variety of uses onboard ship. It can be used as:
1) Ammeter:
When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a very small current range, the moving coil is connected
across a suitable low resistance shunt, so that only small part of the main current flows through the coil.
The shunt consists of a number of thin plates made up of alloy metal, which is usually magnetic and has
a low temperature coefficient of resistance, fixed between two massive blocks of copper. A resistor of
same alloy is also placed in series with the coil to reduce errors due to temperature variation.

2) Voltmeter:
When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is connected in series with high resistance. Rest of the
function is same as above. The same moving coil can be used as an ammeter or voltmeter with an
interchange of above arrangement

3) Galvanometer:
Galvanometer is used to measure small value of current along with its direction and strength. It is mainly
used onboard to detect and compare different circuits in a system.

5) Ohm Meter:
The ohm meter is used to measure resistance of the electric circuit by applying a voltage to a resistance
with the help of battery. A galvanometer is used to determine the flow of current through the resistance.
The galvanometer scale is marked in ohms and as the resistance varies, since the voltage is fixed, the
current through the meter will also vary.

Advantages:
– The PMMC consumes less power and has great accuracy.
– It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of 270 degree.
– The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
– It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with suitable resistance.
– It has efficient damping characteristics and is not affected by stray magnetic field.
– It produces no losses due to hysteresis.

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Disadvantage:
– The moving coil instrument can only be used on D.C supply as the reversal of current produces
reversal of torque on the coil.
– It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit with a rectifier.
– It’s costly as compared to moving coil iron instruments.
– It may show error due to loss of magnetism of permanent magnet.

Moving Iron Instrument

This instrument is one of the most primitive forms of measuring and relay instrument. Moving iron type
instruments are of mainly two types. Attraction type and repulsion type instrument.

Whenever a piece of iron is placed nearer to a magnet it would be attracted by the magnet. The force of
this attraction depends upon the strength said magnetic field. If the magnet is electromagnet is
electromagnet then the magnetic field strength can easily be increased or decreased by increasing or
decreasing current through its coil. Accordingly the attraction force acting on the piece of iron would
also be increased and decreased. Depending upon this simple phenomenon attraction type moving iron
instrument was developed.

Whenever two pieces of iron are kept side by side and a magnet is brought nearer to them the iron pieces
will repulse each other. This repulsion force is due to same magnetic poles induced in same sides the
iron pieces due external magnetic field. This repulsion force increases if field strength of the magnet is
increased. Like case if the magnet is electromagnet, then magnetic field strength can easily be controlled
by controlling input current to the magnet. Hence if the current increases the repulsion force between the
pieces of iron is increased and it the current decreases the repulsion force between them is decreased.
Depending upon this phenomenon repulsion type moving iron instrument was constructed.

Construction of Moving Iron Instrument

The basic construction of attraction type moving iron instrument is illustrated bellow
A thin disc of soft iron is eccentrically pivoted in front of a coil. This iron tends to move inward that is
from weaker magnetic field to stronger magnetic field when current flowing through the coil. In
attraction moving instrument gravity control was used previously but now gravity control method is
replaced by spring control in relatively modern instrument. By adjusting balance weight null deflection
of the pointer is achieved. The required damping force is provided in this instrument by air friction. The
figure shows a typical type of damping system provided in the instrument, where damping is achieved
by a moving piston in an air syringe.

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Theory of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument
Suppose when there is no current through the coil, the pointer is at zero, the angle made by the axis of
the iron disc with the line perpendicular to the field is φ. Now due current I and corresponding magnetic
field strength, the iron piece is deflected to an angle θ. Now component of H in the direction of defected
iron disc axis is Hcos{90 – (θ + φ) or Hsin(θ + φ). Now force F acting on the disc inward to the coil is
thus proportional to H2sin(θ + φ) hence the force is also proportional to I2sin(θ + φ) for constant
permeability. If this force is acting on the disc at a distance l from the pivot, then deflection torque,

Since l is constant. At steady state condition,

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Where K is constant.

Repulsion Type
It consists of a fixed coil inside which two soft iron and are arranged parallel to one another and along
the axis of the coil . One of these rods A, is fixed to the coil frame, while the other rod B is moving and
is mounted on the spindle. The moving rod carries a pointer which moves over a calibrated scale. In this
type of movement, the coil which receives the current to be measured is stationary.The field set up by
the coil magnetizes two iron vanes, which then becomes temporary magnets. Since the same field
magnetizes both vanes, both vanes have the same magnetizes polarity. Consequently, there is a force of
repulsion between the two vanes. One of the vanes (statotionary vane) is attached to the coil form. The
other vane (the moving vane) is mounted on the pivot shaft to which the meter pointer is attached. Thus,
the magnetic force of repulsion forces the moving vane away from the stationary vane. Of course, this
force is offset by the counter torgue of the spiral springs attached to the pivot shaft. The greater the
current through the coil in, the stringer the magnetic repelling force; thus, the farther the moving vane
rotates and the more current the pointer indicates. The iron vane meter movement can operate on either
a.c or d.c

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Working principle

Advantage of Moving – Iron Instruments

Following are the advantages of moving – iron instruments
i. Cheap, robust and give reliable service
ii. Usable in both a.c and d.c circuits.

Disadvantages and Limitations of Moving – Iron Instrument

i. Have non-linear scale
ii. Cannot be calibrated with a high degree of precision for d.c on account of the effect of hysteresis in
the iron vanes
iii. The instrument will always have to be put in the vertical position if it uses gravity control.

Applications
The moving – iron instruments are primarily used for a.c measurement such as, alternating currents and
voltages.

Wattmeter
A wattmeter, as its name implies, measure electric power given to or develop by an electronic apparatus
or circuit. A wattmeter is hardly over required in a d.c circuit because power (P = VI) can be easily
determined from voltmeter and ammeter readings. However, in an a.c circuit, such a computation is
generally speaking impossible. It is because in an a.c circuit, power (P = VI Cos θ) depends not only on
voltage and current but also on the phase shift between them. Therefore, a wattmeter is necessary for a.c
power measurement.The wattmeter shows a reading which is proportional to the product of the current

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through its current coli, the p.d across its potential or pressure coil and cosine of the angle between this
voltage and current. The “wattmeter” is an indicating type instruments, generally used for power
measurement of the electrical circuit . A wattmeter consists of (1) a low resistance current coil which is
inserted in series with the line carrying the current and (ii) a high resistance pressure coil which is
connected across the two points whose potential difference is to be measured. The wattmeter require
polarity markings so that the current in the stationary coils will be in the correct direction relative to the
current in the movable coil

There are two principle types of wattmeter viz:

i. Dynamometer Wattmeter – for both d.c and a.c power
ii. Induction Wattmeter – for a.c power only.

Wattmeter design
Power in an electric circuit is the product (multiplication) of voltage and current, so any meter designed
to measure power must account for both of these variables. A special meter movement designed
especially for power measurement is called the dynamometer movement, and is similar to a D'Arsonval
in that a lightweight coil of wire is attached to the pointer mechanism. However, unlike the D'Arsonval
movement, another (stationary) coil is used instead of a permanent magnet to provide the magnetic field
for the moving coil to react against. The moving coil is generally energized by the voltage in the circuit,
while the stationary coil is generally energized by the current in the circuit. A dynamometer movement
connected in a circuit looks something like this:

Connection diagram of dynamometer wattmeter

Schematic diagram of dynamometer wattmeter

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The top (horizontal) coil of wire measures load current in figure above as while the bottom (vertical)
coil measures load voltage. Just like the lightweight moving coils of voltmeter movements, the (moving)
voltage coil of a dynamometer is typically connected in series with a range resistor so that full load
voltage is not applied to it. Likewise, the (stationary) current coil of a dynamometer may have precision
shunt resistors to divide the load current around it. With custom-built dynamometer movements, shunt
resistors are less likely to be needed because the stationary coil can be constructed with as heavy of wire
as needed without impacting meter response, unlike the moving coil which must be constructed of
lightweight wire for minimum inertia.

Operation
When the wattmeter is connected in the circuit to measure power, the current (stationary coil) which is
wound with a larger-diameter wire carries the load current and potential (moving coil) coil carries
current proportional to the load voltage. Due to currents in the coils, mechanical force exists between
them. The result is that movable coil moves the pointer over the scale. The pointer comes to rest at a
position when deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque. The moving coil is used to detect the
magnitude of the circuit voltage. The stationary coils are referred to as the current coils. The circuit
current is detected by the current coils, which are connected in series with the load. The stationary
current is wound with larger diameter. This keeps the resistance that is in series with the load as low as
possible. The moving coil is wound with thin wire to keep it as high as possible. Since the movable coil
responds to voltage, it has a multiplier (a high non-inductive resistance) connected in series with the
moving coil to limit the current flowing through the moving coil to a small value, usually up to 100mA.
Such instruments can be used for the measurement of d.c as well as a.c power.

Example
i. A dynamometer type voltmeter with its voltage coil connected across the load side reads
192w. the load voltage is 208V and the resistance of the potential coil circuit is 3825Ω
calculate (i) time load power ii. Percentage error to voltmeter connection

Solution

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Two ways of connecting wattmeter

In the connection of figure (a), the pressure coil is connected on the supply side (i.e cc on the load side)
and therefore the voltage applied to the pressure coil is the voltage across the load plus the voltage drop
across the current coil. Thus the wattmeter measures the power loss in its current coil in addition to the
power consumed by load.

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Power indicated by wattmeter = power consumed by load + power loss in current coil (I2Rc) = PL + PC

In connection (b) the current coil is on supply side and, therefore it carries the pressure coil current plus
the load current. Hence the wattmeter reads the power consumed by the load plus the power loss in
pressure coil.

∴Power indicated by wattmeter = power consumed by load + power loss in pressure coil (V2 /Rp)

If the load current is small, the voltage drop in the current coil is small, so that connection of fig. (a)
introduces a very small as compared with the load current and hence power loss in pressure coil will be
very small as compared with the load power and, therefore, connection of fig (b) is preferable.

Note
The connection in figure (a) is use for small current high voltage load and (b) high current low voltage
loads.

Example
The resistance of the two coils of a wattmeter are 0.0Ω1 and 1000Ω respectively and both are non –
inductive. The load is taking a current of 20A at 200V and 0.8 p.f lagging. Show the two ways in which
the voltage coil can be connected and find the error in the reading of the meter in each case.

Advantages Of Dynamometer Wattmeter

i. Such instruments can be made to give a very high degree of accuracy. Hence, they are used as a
standard for calibrated purposes.
ii. They are equally accurate on d.c as well as a.c measurements.
iii. It can be used on both a.c and d.c supply, for any waveform of voltage and current, and is not
restricted to sinusoidal waveforms.

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Disadvantages Of Dynamometer Wattmeter
At low power factor, the inductance of the voltage coil causes serious error unless special precautions
are taken to reduce this effect.

Errors in Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter

Following are the errors in the electrodynamometer type wattmeters:
(a) Errors in the pressure coil inductance.
(b) Errors may be due to pressure coil capacitance.
(c) Errors may be due to mutual inductance effects.
(d) Errors may be due connections.(i.e. pressure coil is connected after current coil)
(e) Error due to Eddy currents.
(f) Errors caused by vibration of moving system.
(g) Temperature error.
(h) Errors due to stray magnetic field.

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 Performance Characteristics of an Instrumentation System

Generalized measurement

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 375x10-6

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