Semester: 5th

Paper Title: Electronic Instrumentation Fundamentals (SEC)

Topic: Measurements and Measurement Systems
Measurement is an act or the result of a quantitative comparison between an unknown magnitude and the predefined standard. Since two
quantities are compared the result is expressed in numerical values. If the result is to be meaningful, two requirements must be met viz, (i) the
standard which is used for comparison must be accurately known and commonly accepted, (ii) the procedure and equipment used for obtaining
this comparison must be provable.
For example, a weight cannot be heavy and to be meaningful it must be quoted as certain times as heavy as something which is our standard
weight. Obviously unless our standard is commonly accepted and recognized one, this comparison or measurement will have only a limited
meaning. Furthermore, if the process of comparison using a certain equipment is repeated any number of times, same numerical result must be
obtained irrespective of the person and the place
Methods of measurements:
There are two fundamental methods of measurement as described below:
(a) Direct comparison method. Most of the measurements of physical quantities like length, mass and time are being made by this method. In this
method, the unknown quantity called measurand is directly compared against a standard. We set some primary standards, and prepare from them
secondary standards and then measurements are made relative to these standards. Metre for example, is the length of the International Prototype
Metre - a platinum iridium bar when subjected to certain specified conditions and is our primary standard. To avoid wear / damage to the primary
standard during constant use, we prepare some measuring rods, tapes etc. relative to this standard which are called secondary standards.
Suppose we want to measure the length of a bar. The unit of length is metre. A bar is so many times long because that many units on our standard
have the same length as the bar. A human being can make direct length comparisons with precision of about 0.25 mm. Therefore, due to human
factors it is not possible to make accurate measurements.
(b) Indirect comparison method. Measurements by direct comparison method are not always possible, feasible and practicable. In addition these
methods, in most of the cases are inaccurate because they involve human factors and are less sensitive. Hence direct comparison methods are not
preffered and rarely used.
Indirect comparison method (calibration system method) make use of a suitable transducer device connected to a number of instruments for
various purposes which in total are called measurement system. In this system, the transducer element converts the quantity to be measured in an
analogous form. The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to the end devices which presents the results
of the measurement.
The signal processing means either one or a combination of more of the following:
i) To increase the power or magnitude or both by suitable amplification methods if the signal is weak.
ii) To telemeter the data for remote reading or recording e.g., recording of the temperature of the moon's surface on the ground.
iii) To extract the desired information from extraneous input by means of filtering.
Types of Measurement
There are three types of measurements as listed below
(i) Primary measurements. If the measurement is by direct observation without converting the measured property into length, that is involving
direct comparison then such a measurement is called the primary measurement. For example, measuring the length of a straight line with a scale,
judging the weight of unknown mass of matter, matching of two colours and light intensities are primary measurements.
(ii) Secondary measurements. These measurements involve one conversion since the measured quantity is not observable (like the temperature
of a fluid). It is necessary to make indirect comparison using the calibrated system satisfying following requirements.
(a) It should convert temperature changes into length changes.
(b) A length scale calibrated in terms of the known changes in temperature.
For example, in a mercury thermometer, the primary signal (temperature) is transmitted to a transducer (mercury) and the secondary signal
(length) is read by observer. Similarly, measurement of pressure by manometers is another example of secondary measurement.
(iii) Tertiary measurements. These measurements involve the conversion of the measurand into another quantity which is then again converted
into length and thus involves two conversions of the quantity to be measured. Since the measurand cannot be directly read, it is essential to make
indirect comparison using the calibrated system.
Measurement of temperature by thermocouple is an example of tertiary measurements. In this primary signal (i.e., temperature difference
between the hot and the cold junctions, temperature of the cold junction already known) is, sensed by the transducer which generates a voltage
directly proportional to the temperature difference. Thus first conversion takes place from temperature to voltage. This voltage is then converted
into length (which is second conversion) by means of a suitable meter which is transmitted to observer's eye.

Elements of Measurement System:

It is desirable to describe the operation of a measuring instrument or a system in generalized way without involving details of the physical aspects
of a specific instrument or a system. The whole operation can be described in terms of three functional elements. Each functional element is made
up of a distinct component or groups of components which perform required and definite steps in measurement. These may be taken as basic
elements, whose scope is determined by their functioning rather than their construction.
 i) Primary Sensing Element: The quantity under measurement i.e., measurand makes its first contact with primary sensing
element of a measurement system. Immediately after this a transducer converts measurand into an analoguous electrical signal.
This is true in most of the cases but in many cases the measurand is directly converted into an electrical quantity by a transducer.
ii) Variable Conversion Element: The output of the primary sensingelement may be any kind of electrical signal. It may be a
voltage, a frequency or some other electrical parameter. Often this output does not suit to the system. For the instrument to
perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output to some other suitable form while retaining the original
signal. For example, suppose output is an analogue form and the next stage of the system accepts input signal only in digital
form. Therefore, we have to use an analogue-to-digital converter. Many instruments do not need any variable conversion
element, while others need more than one element.
The function of variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the original nature of the signal.
Manipulation here means a change in numerical value of the signal. For example, an electronic amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input
and produces an output signal which is also voltage but of greater magnitude. Thus voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. It is
not necessary that a variable manipulation element should follow the variable conversion element. It may precede the variable conversion element
in many cases.
iii) Data Presentation Element: The information about the measurand has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument
or the system for monitoring control or analysis purpose. The information conveyed must be in a form intelligible to the
personnel. This function is done by the data presentation element. In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are
needed. These devices may be analogue or digital indicating instruments like ammeters, etc. In case, the data is to be recorded,
recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera, storage type CRT, printers, or analogue and digital computers may be used.
For control and analysis purpose, computers are used.
The final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage. When a control device is used for the final measurement stage, it is
necessary to apply some feedback to the input signal to accomplish the control objectives.
Many a times we have to perform certain operations on the signal before it is transmitted further. These processes may be linear like
amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation, addition and subtraction. Some non-linear processes like modulation, detection, sampling,
filtering, chopping and clipping etc. are performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form. This is called signal conditioning. The term signal
conditioning includes many other functions in addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation. In fact the element that follows the
primary sensing element in any instrument or instrumentation system should be called signal conditioning element.
When the elements of an instrument are physically separated, it becomes necessary to transmit data from one to another. The element that
performs this function is called a transmitting element. For example, space-crafts are physically separated from the earth where the control
stations guiding these movements are located. The signal conditioning and transmission stage is commonly known as intermediate stage.