This subject has broadly two divisions, one dealing with measuring instruments called

electronic measurements and the other dealing with transducer sensors, monitoring, and
controlling physical parameters called Instrumentation. In general, the manner in which
instruments are put to use is classified as follows:

1. Monitoring of processes and operations.

2. Control of processes and operations.
3. Experimental engineering analysis.

This is only a general way of classification and there could be other applications as well.

Monitoring of processes and operations: Some measuring instruments have only a

monitoring function; for example, thermometers and barometers. They simply indicate
the condition of the environment and cannot control any function.

Control of processes and operations: Some instruments are put to use for the control of
process operations; for example, home-heating system using a thermostat control. A
temperature-measuring instrument senses the room temperature, thus providing
information necessary for proper functioning of the control system. Missiles guided by
the heat blast that is ejected from planes are another example.

Experimental engineering analysis: In research and development work, measuring

instruments are used in carrying out experiments such as measurement of voltage,
current, etc. Here the application of instruments is specifically intended for experimental
purpose only.

Functional elements of an instrument

As you can see, the block diagram provides you with the basic idea of what you are going
to see in detail.

Lets start up with the first thing in the block diagram. I think you probably don't need any
explanation for this. The variable that you want to measure is mentioned here. It is called
as the "Measurand". For example, If you want to measure current, then current is the
measurand.

Primary Sensing Element

Next comes the Primary Sensing Element, as shown in the block diagram. You can
remember it better if i mention it as "First Sensing Element". Thats right. The Element
(Part) of an instrument which makes first contact with the measurand is called the
primary sensing element. For example, In Ammeter (which is used to measure current),
the coil carrying the current to be measured is the primary sensing element.

Variable conversion Element

The output of the Primary sensing element may not be suitable for the actual
measurement system. For example, in ammeter, the output from the coil is current, so
there we place a magnet to get a deflection due to the current passing in the coil. So here
the magnet acts as a variable conversion element, converting current into physical
movement which is the deflection and by measuring the amount of deflection we can
measure the amount of current.

Note: Some instruments do not need this variable conversion elements, whereas some
instruments need more than one.

Also keep in mind, that the original information about the measurand must be retained
during the process of such conversion.

Variable Manipulation Element

This is the tricky part. The level of the output from the Variable conversion element may
not be enough for the next stage. For example, in case of ammeter if the amount of
current to be measured is so small , it may not be enough to cause any deflection in the
magnet. So here a transformer can be used to increase the voltage to get enough
deflection. So in this case the transformer will be the Data Manipulation Element.

Note: The Variable conversion element and the variable manipulation element are
together called as Data conditioning element since they help to obtain the signal in pure
and acceptable form from highly distorted form.
Data Transmission Element

If the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary to transmit the data
from one stage to the other. So we need this Data Transmission element. The data
conditioning and the Data transmission are together called as the intermediate stage of an
Instrument.

Data Presentation Element

So now the measuring is done and we need to present the data in a suitable form so that it
is easily understood by the observer and for this the Data Presentation Element is used. In
case of our Ammeter Example, it is the Pointer and the scale arrangement that acts as the
Data presentation element. If the output data is to be monitored, a visual display can be
used and if needs to be recorded then magnetic tapes , recorders or hard disk drives can
be used. The Data Presenting Stage may be called as the Terminating stage of an
instrument.

Basic classification of measuring instruments:

1.     Mechanical instruments:- They are very reliable for static and stable conditions.
The disadvantage is they are unable to respond rapidly to measurement of dynamic and
transient conditions.

2.    Electrical instruments:- Electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are
more rapid than mechanical methods. The electrical system normally depends upon a
mechanical meter movement as indicating device.

3.    Electronic instruments:- These instruments have very fast response. For example a
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable to follow dynamic and transient changes of
the order of few nano seconds (10-9 sec).

Other classification of instruments:-

1.  Absolute instruments or Primary Instruments:- These instruments gives the

magnitude of quantity under measurement in terms of physical constants of the
instrument e.g. Tangent Galvanometer. These instruments do not require comparison
with any other standard instrument

• These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of absolute
quantities (or some constants) of the instruments and their deflections.
• In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other instruments is
necessary.
• They are generally not used in laboratories and are seldom used in practice by
electricians and engineers. They are mostly used as means of standard measurements and
are maintained lay national laboratories and similar institutions.

• Some of the examples of absolute instruments are:

* Tangent galvanometer
* Raleigh current balance
* Absolute electrometer

2.  Secondary instruments:-These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being
measured can only be determined by the output indicated by the instrument. These
instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another
secondary instrument, which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.

Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming since every time a
measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of quantity under
measurement. Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly used.

• They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by these instruments
can be determined from the deflection of the instruments.
• They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute instruments or
with those which have already been calibrated.

• The deflections obtained with secondary instruments will be meaningless untill it is not
calibrated.
• These instruments are used in general for all laboratory purposes.
• Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter,
wattmeter, energy meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour meters etc.

Classification of Secondary Instruments:

(a) Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or voltage) upon which
their operation depend. They are:

• Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters, watt-meters, integrating meters etc.

• Heating effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters.
• Chemical effect: Used in dc ampere hour meters.
• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters and
integrating meters.
        Generally the magnetic effect and the electromagnetic induction effect are utilized
for the construction of the commercial instruments. Some of the instruments are also
named based on the above effect such as electrostatic voltmeter, induction instruments,
etc.

(b) Classification based on the Nature of their Operations

 We have the following instruments.

• Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be
measured by means of a pointer which moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter,
voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
• Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously the variation of any
electrical quantity with respect to time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but
so arranged that a permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or
dial. The recording is generally made by a pen on a graph paper which is rotated on a
dice or drum at a uniform speed. The amount of the quantity at any time (instant) may be
read from the traced chart. Any variation in the quantity with time is recorded by these
instruments. Any electrical quantity like current, voltage, power etc., (which may be
measured lay the indicating instruments) may be arranged to be recorded by a suitable
recording mechanism.
• Integrating instruments: These instruments record the consumption of the total
quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of time. That is, these
instruments totalize events over a specified period of time. No indication of the rate or
variation or the amount at a particular instant are available from them. Some widely used
integrating instruments are: Ampere-hour meter: kilowatthour (kWh) meter, kilovolt-
ampere-hour
(kVARh) meter.

(c) Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand.

    Under this heading, we have:

• Direct current (dc) instruments

• Alternating current (ac) instruments

• Both direct current and alternating current instruments (dc/ac instruments).

(d) Classification based on the method used.

  Under this category, we have:

• Direct method measuring instruments: These instruments converts the energy of the
measured quantity directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the value of the
unknown quantity is measured or displayed or recorded directly. These instruments are
most widely used in engineering practice because they are simple and inexpensive. Also,
time involved in the measurement is shortest. Examples are Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt
meter etc.

• Indirect method measuring instruments: These instruments measure the unknown

quantity by comparison with a standard. Examples are dc and ac bridges and
potentiometers. They are used when a higher accuracy of measurements is desired.

Static Characteristics
Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system when the input is either
held constant or varying very slowly. The items that can be classified under the
heading static characteristics are mainly:

 Range (or span)

It defines the maximum and minimum values of the inputs or the outputs for which
the instrument is recommended to use. For example, for a temperature measuring
instrument the input range may be 100-500 oC and the output range may be 4-20 mA.

 Sensitivity
It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the incremental input.
While defining the sensitivity, we assume that the input-output characteristic of the
instrument is approximately linear in that range. Thus if the sensitivity of a
thermocouple is denoted as 10 0 / V C μ , it indicates the sensitivity in the linear range
of the thermocouple voltage vs. temperature characteristics. Similarly sensitivity of a
spring balance can be expressed as 25 mm/kg (say), indicating additional load of 1 kg
will cause additional displacement of the spring by 25mm.
Again sensitivity of an instrument may also vary with temperature or other external
factors. This is known as sensitivity drift. Suppose the sensitivity of the spring
balance mentioned above is 25 mm/kg at 20 oC and 27 mm/kg at 30oC. Then the
sensitivity drift/oC is 0.2 (mm/kg)/oC. In order to avoid such sensitivity drift,
sophisticated instruments are either kept at controlled temperature, or suitable in-built
temperature compensation schemes are provided inside the instrument.

 Linearity
Linearity is actually a measure of nonlinearity of the instrument. When we talk about
sensitivity, we assume that the input/output characteristic of the instrument to be
approximately linear. But in practice, it is normally nonlinear, as shown in Fig.1. The
linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the linear characteristics as a
percentage of the full scale output.
.
 Hysteresis
Hysteresis exists not only in magnetic circuits, but in instruments also. For example,
the deflection of a diaphragm type pressure gage may be different for the same
pressure, but one for increasing and other for decreasing, as shown in Fig.2. The
hysteresis is expressed as the maximum hysteresis as a full scale reading, i.e.,

 Resolution
In some instruments, the output increases in discrete steps, for continuous increase in
the input, as shown in Fig.3. It may be because of the finite graduations in the meter
scale; instrument has a digital display, as a result the output indication changes
discretely. A 1 32 –digit voltmeter, operating in 0-2V range, can have maximum
reading of 1.999V, and it cannot measure any change in voltage below 0.001V.
Resolution indicates the minimum change in input variable that is detectable.

 Accuracy
Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured value with the actual or true value,
and is expressed in the form of the maximum error (= measured value – true value)
as a percentage of full scale reading. Thus, if the accuracy of a temperature indicator,
with a full scale range of 0- 500 oC is specified as ± 0.5%, it indicates that the
measured value will always be within ± 2.5 oC of the true value, if measured through
a standard instrument during the process of calibration. But if it indicates a reading of
250 oC, the error will also be ± 2.5 oC, i.e. ± 1% of the reading. Thus it is always
better to choose a scale of measurement where the input is near full-scale value. But
the true value is always difficult to get. We use standard calibrated instruments in the
laboratory for measuring true value if the variable.

 Precision
Precision indicates the repeatability or reproducibility of an instrument (but does not
indicate accuracy). If an instrument is used to measure the same input, but at different
instants, spread over the whole day, successive measurements may vary randomly.
The random fluctuations of readings, (mostly with a Gaussian distribution) is often
due to random variations of several other factors which have not been taken into
account, while measuring the variable. A precision instrument indicates that the
successive reading would be very close, or in other words, the standard deviation e σ
of the set of measurements would be very small. Quantitatively, the precision can be
expressed as: Precision = e range measured σ The difference between precision and
accuracy needs to be understood carefully. Precision means repetition of successive
readings, but it does not guarantee accuracy; successive readings may be close to each
other, but far from the true value. On the other hand, an accurate instrument has to be
precise also, since successive readings must be close to the true value (that is unique).

zero drift
If the whole calibration gradually drifts due to slippage, permanent set or
due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits zero drift sets in. this can be
eliminated by zero setting.

Zero drift line

 O/P Nominal curve

I/P

2. Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when the input
variable is changing rapidly with time. For example, human eye cannot detect any
event whose duration is more than one-tenth of a second; thus the dynamic
performance of human eye cannot be said to be very satisfactory. The dynamic
performance of an instrument is normally expressed by a differential equation relating
the input and output quantities. It is always convenient to express the input-output
dynamic characteristics in form of a linear differential equation.
The three common variation in the measured quantity. Are
1. step change
2. linear change
3. sinusoidal change
step change
which the primary element is subject to an instantaneous and finite change in
measured variable. Is called step change
linear change
In which the primary element is following measured variable, changing linearly
with time.
Sinusoidal change
In Which the primary element follow a measured variable, the magnitude of
which change in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.

 Potentiometer
Displacement sensors using potentiometric principle have no energy storing
elements. The output voltage eo can be related with the input displacement xi by an
algebraic equation: where is the total length of the potentiometer and E is the
excitation voltage.. So, it can be termed as a zeroth order system.

 Thermocouple
A bare thermocouple has a mass (m) of the junction. If it is immersed in a fluid at a
temperature Tf , then its dynamic performance relating the output voltage eo and the
input temperature Tf ,
  Seismic Sensor
Seismic sensors are commonly used for vibration or acceleration measurement of
foundations. The transfer function between the input displacement i x and output
displacement

 Step response performance

The normalized step response of a measurement system normally encountered
Two important parameters for classifying the dynamic response are:
Peak Overshoot (Mp): It is the maximum value minus the steady state value,
normally expressed in terms of percentage.
Settling Time (ts): It is the time taken to attain the response within ± 2% of the
steady state value.
Rise time (tr): It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of
its final value.

 Frequency Response Performance

The frequency response performance refers to the performance of the system subject
to sinusoidal input of varying frequency. Suppose G(s) is the transfer function of the
dynamic measurement system, represented by the general relation . If the input is a
sinusoidal quantity of amplitude A and frequency ω, then in the steady state, the
output will also be of same frequency, but of different amplitude B, and there would
be a phase difference between the input and output.

TYPES OF ERRORS

Different types of errors that occur in measurements have been classified into three
categories. These include

1. Gross errors.
2. Systematic errors.
3. Random errors.

This will enable users to avoid these errors and thus prove and increase the correctness in
measurement.

1Gross Errors

These are basically human errors caused by the operator or person using the instrument.
The instrument may be good and may not give any error but still the measurement may
go wrong due to the operator. The different types of gross errors are:

1. Taking wrong readings.

2. Reading with parallax error.
3. Incorrect adjustments of zero and full-scale adjustments.
 4. Improper applications of instruments: Using a 0–100 V voltmeter to measure 0.1
V, etc.
5. Wrong computation: When power is to be determined, ‘V’ and ‘I’ are measured.
If the computation goes wrong, even though ‘V’ and ‘I’ have been measured
correctly, the measurement of power will be wrong. Thus, wrong computation can
result in error.

2 Systematic Errors

These are divided into two categories:

1. Instrumental errors: Due to shortcomings of the instruments.

2. Environmental errors: Due to external conditions affecting the instrument.

2.1 Instrumental errors.   Even if human errors are avoided or proper care is taken to
see that such errors do not occur, errors can still occur in measurements due to the
instrument. The possible reasons can be as follows:

1. Friction in bearings of various moving components can cause incorrect readings.

2. Irregular spring tension in analog meters.
3. Calibration errors due to aging.
4. Zero setting not adjusted properly.
5. Full-scale setting not adjusted properly.
6. Faulty display circuit in digital instruments.

These errors can be avoided by

 Applying correction factors.

 Selecting suitable instruments.
 Calibrating the instruments.

2.2 Environmental errors.   Ambient parameters such as temperature, pressure,

humidity, magnetic and electrostatic fields, dust, and other such external parameters can
affect the performance of the instrument. Improper housing of the instrument also can
give wrong readings. Such errors can be avoided by air-conditioning, magnetic shielding,
cleaning the instruments, and housing the instruments properly depending on the
application and type of the instrument.

3 Random Errors

Though gross errors and systematic errors can be avoided by taking proper care, some
other errors can also occur in measurements. No specific reason can be assigned and
precaution could be taken to avoid these errors.Such errors are categorised as random
errors. Noise that is impracticable can cause random errors in measurements. To avoid
these errors, frequency of measurement is to be increased, i.e., the same parameter is to
be measured often. Error in such measurements can be estimated by statistical analysis.