MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS
STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF
MEASUREMENT DATA
• Arithmetic mean & median:
• When the n umber of readings of the same
measurement are
taken, the most likely value from the set of
measured value is
the arithmetic mean of the number of
readings taken.
• The arithmetic mean value can be
mathematically obtained as
• Average deviation:
• The deviation tells us about the departure of a
given reading from the arithmetic mean of the
data
set
Where
di=xi- X
di = deviation of ith reading
Xi= value of ith reading
X = arithmetic mean
 CALIBRATION
• Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or marking a scale so
that the readings of an instrument agree with the accepted & the certified
standard.
• In other words, it is the procedure for determining the correct values of
measurand by comparison with the measured or standard ones.
• The calibration offers a guarantee to the device or instrument that it is
operating with required accuracy, under stipulated environmental
conditions.
• The calibration procedure involves the steps like visual inspection for
various defects, installation according to the specifications, zero adjustment
etc., The calibration is the procedure for determining the correct values of
measure and by comparison with standard ones. The standard of device with
which comparison is made is called a standard instrument.
• The instrument which is unknown & is to be calibrated is called test
instrument. Thus in calibration, test instrument is compared with
standard instrument.
Standard

• International standards
ii) Primary standards
iii) Secondary standards
iv) Working standards
International standards

• International standards are defined as the international

agreement. These standards, as mentioned above are
maintained at the international bureau of weights an d
measures and are periodically evaluated and checked by
absolute measurements in term s of fundamental units of
physics.
• These international standards are not available to the
ordinary users for the calibration purpose.
• For the improvements in the accuracy of absolute
measurements the international units are replaced by the
absolute units in 1948.
• Absolute units are more accurate than the international
units.
 Primary standards
• These are highly accurate absolute standards, w hich
can be used as ultimate reference standards.These
primary standards are maintained at national standard
laboratories in different countries.
• These standards representing fundamental units as well
as some electrical and mechanical derived units are
calibrated independently by absolute measurements at
each of the national laboratories.
• These are not available for use, outside the national
laboratories.
• The main function of the primary standards is the
calibration and verification of secondary standards.
 Secondary standards

• As mentioned above, the primary standards are not

available for use outside the national laboratories.
• The various industries need some reference
standards. So, to protect highly accurate primary
standards the secondary standards are maintained,
which are designed and constructed from the absolute
standards.
• These are used by the measurement and calibration
laboratories in industries and are maintained by the
particular industry to which they belong. Each industry
has its own standards.
 Working standards

• These are the basic tools of a measurement

laboratory and are used to check an d
calibrate the instruments used in laboratory
for accuracy and the performance.
 INSTRUMENTS
• Measurement:
It is the act or result of quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard and
an unknown quantity.
• Instrument:
It is a device or mechanism used to
determine the present value of a quantity under
observation.
 Classification of Instruments
• Instruments can be classified as:
1. Absolute instruments
2. Secondary instruments

1. Absolute instruments:
 Absolute instruments indicate the value of the quantity
being measured in terms of constant of instruments
and its deflection.
 No comparison with standard instrument is necessary.
 Example: tangent galvanometer, Rayleigh current
balance.
 Continued…
2. Secondary instruments:
 The secondary instruments need calibration with
respect to the absolute instruments.
 The secondary instruments determine the value of
the quantity being measured from the deflection
of the instruments.
 Calibration is a must for secondary instrument,
without calibration the deflection obtained is
meaningless.
 Example: Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
 Continued…
• Classification based on the nature of operation:
 Secondary instruments are further classified
according to the nature of operation as:
1. Indicating
2. Recording
3. Integrating instruments.
 Indicating instruments indicate the
instantaneous value of quantity under
measurement.
 Continued…
Recording instruments give a continuous
record of variation of quantity being measured
(such as voltage, frequency, power etc.).
Recorders are commonly used in power plants,
process industries.
An integrating instrument is one which takes
into consideration the period or the time over
which the quantity is supplied. e.g. ampere-
hour meter, energy meter.
 Continued…
• Electrical instruments can also classified as:
1. A.C. instruments
2. D.C. instruments
3. A.C./D.C. instruments
 Some electrical instruments can measure only
A.C. quantity, e.g. induction type instruments,
some can measure only D.C. quantity, e.g.
P.M.M.C. instruments. Some can work on both
a.c. and d.c. e.g. moving iron instruments,
dynamometer instruments etc.
 Continued…
• Analog or Digital instruments:
 One more way of classifying instrument is:
1. Analog instruments
2. Digital instruments.
 Analog information is continuous and stepless
function of time. Analog instruments are easy to
understand, calibrate and maintain.
 Digital information is in form of discrete pulses
or steps. Digital instruments have higher
resolution, high readability.
 Continued…
• Various instruments used in practice:
Following instruments used in day to day life
in order to measure different quantity.
Sr. Name of the instruments Quantity measured
No.
1. Voltmeter AC or DC voltage
2. Ammeter AC or DC current
3. Wattmeter AC power (Watt)
4. Energy meter Energy (Watt hour)
Operation of Indicating Instruments
• For satisfactory operation of any indicating
instrument, following three torques must act
together appropriately:
1. Deflecting torque
2. Controlling torque
3. Damping torque
 Continued…
1. Deflecting Torque:
• It causes the moving system of the instrument to
move from its position of rest.
• Deflecting torque is produced by using any one
of the following effects of electric current:
i. Magnetic effect
ii.Electromagnetic induction effect
iii.Heating effect
iv.Electrostatic effect
 Continued…
2. Controlling Torque:
• It limits the movement of moving systems. It
also ensures that magnitude of deflection is
always the same for the given value of input
quantity under measurement.
• Controlling torque acts in the opposite
direction to that of the deflecting torque.
• At steady state,
Deflecting torque = Controlling torque
 Continued…
3. Damping Torque:
• Due to deflecting torque, pointer moves in one
direction while due to controlling torque pointer moves
in opposite direction.
• Due to these opposite torques, the pointer may oscillate
in the forward and backward direction if the damping
torque is not present.
• Damping torque brings the moving system to rest
quickly in its final position.
• Damping torque acts only when the moving system is
actually moving. If moving system is at rest, damping
torque is zero.
 Continued…
• Critical Damping:
 Depending on the magnitude of torque, damping may
be classified as underdamped, overdamped or critically
damped. Effect of damping on the deflection of the
instrument is shown in fig.(1).
 If the instrument is underdamped, the pointer will come
to rest after some oscillations.
 If the instrument is overdamped, pointer takes
considerable time to obtain its final deflected position.
 If the damping is critical, without oscillation and in
short time the pointer reach its final steady position.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): Effect of damping on the deflection of instrument