MID TERM Measurement

Measurement And Instrument
Ahmed Mortuza Saleque
Assistant Professor
American International University-Bangladesh
Spring 2015-16
Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -1-
Introduction
What is Measurement?
• The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison between the quantity
(whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard.
• Since two quantities are compared, the result is expressed in numerical values.
• In the measurement process the property of an object under consideration is compared with some standard.
• The numerical quantity must have a definite unit for meaningful presentation.
Common Measured Variables:

• A Process is a system which generated information.
• Following table lists information variables which are commonly generated by processes.
Acceleration Density
Velocity Viscosity
Displacement Composition
Force-Weight pH
Pressure Humidity
Torque Temperature
Volume Heat/Light Flux
Mass Flux Density
Flow rate Current
Level Voltage
Power

Introduction
Measurement Units :
Introduction
The Basic Requirements for Meaningful Measurement:
• The standard used for comparison purposes are accurately defined and should be commonly accepted.
• The apparatus and the method adopted must be provable.
Measurement System Applications:

• Measuring Instruments can be classified into three major areas.
• Instruments for Physical quantities measurement
• Example: Measuring length, volume, mass etc.
• Instruments in monitoring functions
• Example: Monitoring Room temperature, patient pulse rate etc.
• Instruments in automatic process control systems

Introduction
Significance of Measurement:
• Advancement of science and technology is dependent on parallel progress in measurement technologies-Two
major functions.
1) Design of equipment and process
2) Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and process
Recent Developments:
1) Electronic and Computer based measurement systems

2) Nanotechnology
3) Biological sensors and applications
Example: A common example of a commercial biosensor is the blood glucose biosensor, which uses the
enzyme glucose oxidase to break blood glucose down
Introduction
Methods of Measurements
a) Direct Method and b) Indirect Method
Direct Method: In the direct method the unknown quantity is directly compared against standard.
The result is a numerical number with a unit.
Example: Measurement of length and mass etc.
• The pressure-measuring device shown in Figure.

• The pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement of a pointer
against a scale.
• The energy expended in moving the pointer is derived entirely from
the change in pressure measured: there are no other energy inputs
to the system
Indirect Method: Measurement by direct method is not always possible. The direct method is highly dependent on
human factors. This is why indirect method with the help of measurement systems are considered.
A float-type petrol tank level indicator as sketched in Figure. Here, the change in
petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists of a
proportion of the external voltage source applied across the two ends of the
potentiometer. The energy in the output signal comes from the external power
source. The indirect method is instrument dependent and accurate.

Introduction
Instrument and Measurement Systems:
Instrument is a single unit that gives an output corresponding to the measured value.
The instruments may be the following types.
(a) Mechanical
(b) Electrical
(c) Electronic
Mechanical Instruments:
• It shows the reading corresponding to mechanical variables
• These instruments are slow and have inertia effect
Electrical Instruments:
• Faster but normally have mechanical deflection system and requires maximum 0.5 sec to operate
Electronic Instruments:
• These days most of the scientific and industrial measurement systems are electronic.
Example: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) and Biomedical Instruments etc.
Classification of Instruments:
1) Absolute Instrument:
• These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of absolute quantities (or some
constants) of the instruments and their deflections.
• In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other instruments is necessary.
• They are generally not used in laboratories and are seldom used in practice by electricians and engineers.
• They are mostly used as means of standard measurements and are maintained by national laboratories
and similar institutions.
• Some of the examples of absolute instruments are:
Tangent galvanometer, Raleigh current balance, Absolute electrometer
2) Secondary Instrument:
• They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by these instruments can be determined
from the deflection of the instruments.
• They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute instruments or with those which
have already been calibrated.
• The deflections obtained with secondary instruments will be meaningless until it is not calibrated.
• These instruments are used in general for all laboratory purposes.
• Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter
(watt-hour meter), ampere-hour meters etc.

Deflection & Null type Instruments
Deflection Type Instrument
• In these types of instruments, pointer of the electrical measuring instrument deflects to measure the quantity.
• The value of the quantity can be measured by measuring the net deflection of the pointer from its initial position.
• In order to understand these types of instruments let take an example of deflection type permanent magnet
moving coil ammeter which is shown below:
• The diagram shown above has two permanent magnets which are called the stationary part of the instrument and
the moving part which is between the two permanent magnets that consists of pointer.
• The deflection of the moving coil is directly proportion to the current.
• Thus the torque is proportional to the current which is given by the expression Td ∝ G.I or Td = GI
where Td is the deflecting torque. G is proportionality constant which depends upon the strength of the
magnetic field and the number of turns in the coil.

Deflection Type Instrument (Contd.)
• Control Torque (spring): TC = K where, K is the spring constant
• At balance, Td = TC ⇒ = ⇒ = ⁄
The pointer deflects between the two opposite forces produced by the spring and the magnets. And the resulting
direction of the pointer is in the direction of the resultant force. The value of current is measured by the deflection
angle θ, and the value of K and G.
Null Type Instrument:
• In opposite to deflection type of instruments, the null or zero type electrical measuring instruments tend to
maintain the position of pointer stationary.
• They maintain the position of the pointer stationary by producing opposing effect.
Thus for the operation of null type instruments following steps are required:
(1) Value of opposite effect should be known in order to calculate the value of unknown quantity.
(2) Detector shows accurately the balance and the unbalance condition accurately.
The detector should also have the means for restoring force.

Null Type Instrument (Contd.):
• Example:
• Determination of EMF of a cell using potentiometer, a scale and slide wire is represented in the following
figure.
• The null detector is a current galvanometer whose deflection is proportional to the unbalance EMF i.e. the
difference between “a-b” of slide wire and the unknown EMF Ex.
• As soon as the two are equal there is no current through galvanometer and it shows ZERO deflection thereby
indicating null condition.

Comparison between Null Type and Deflection Type Instrument
• Accuracy of null type instrument is higher than deflection type- In deflection type calibration is important
for accuracy.
• The deflection has to be balanced in the null type and range of instrument is small.
• The measurement in null type instrument is length and time consuming. Whereas, the measurement in
deflection type is fast.
• Deflection type instrumentation is suitable for dynamic condition for monitoring of variables. Null type is
suitable for steady state condition.

Analog and Digital Modes of Operation
• Analog signals vary with time and can take infinite numbers of values in a span of time. The digital
signals can take only finite numbers of values in a given span of time.
• From analog signals the values are sampled and discretized as indicated .
• An ADC with sample and hold is required to get the digital output from analog signal as shown.
• In the reverse process a DAC is required to convert digital signal to analog.
• Present day digital instrument are becoming popular and many industrial instrumentation PLC or digital
computer is used for instrumentation.
Functions of Instruments
a) Indicating Function: contains s pointer and scale.
b) Recording Function: for dynamic conditions the variables with time variations are recorded.
c) Controlling Function: for industrial process control.
Applications of measurement systems

a) Monitoring processes and operations: Ammeter and voltmeter etc. in a control panel indicates
continuously the values.
b) Control of process and operation: For servo system control of speed, position and acceleration etc. Is
being detected then controller controls by applying control laws.
c) Experimental engineering analysis:

1) Testing the validity of theoretical analysis & 2) Determination of parameter.

Functional Block Diagram of a Measurement System:
Description:
1) Primary sensing element:
• It contains a transducer or sensor.
• Transducer converts energy from one form to another form. Normally, a physical quantity to an electrical
quantity.
• The physical quantity is first sensed and then detected by an element and finally an output of
different analogous form is developed.
2) Variable conversion element:
• The primary sensing element produces output that may be voltage, frequency or other quantity that
need to be converted into useful form by the variable conversion element. Such as A/D converter.
3) Variable manipulation element: It changes the level of the signal amplifies or signal conditioning.
4) Data transmission element: After the variable is manipulated it is transmitted to the data presentation element
through wire or wireless.
5) Data presentation element: The variable under measurement is qualified and to be conveyed to the
personnel for observation
Example of Data Presentation Element:

Data can be presented using Bourdon Tube Pressure gauge.
• Bourdon tube pressure gages can be used to measure over a wide range of pressure, from vacuum to
pressure as high as few thousand psi.
• It is basically consisted of a C-shaped hollow tube, whose one end is fixed and connected to the pressure
tapping, the other end free, as shown in fig.
• The cross section of the tube is elliptical. When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube tries to acquire a circular
cross section; as a result, stress is developed and the tube tries to straighten up.
• Thus the free end of the tube moves up, depending on magnitude of pressure. A deflecting and indicating
mechanism is attached to the free end that rotates the pointer
Fig. Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Input-Output Characteristics of Measurement system:
Desired Input: Desired input is defined as the quantity for which the instrument/measurement system is designed
to measure or respond.
Interfering Input: These are quantities or variables to which the instrument is highly sensitive. The instrument or
system is not desired to respond to interfering inputs. But the output fluctuates due to interfering input because of
their working principle, design and other factors.
Modifying Input: They are defined as inputs which cause change in I/O relationships for either desired input or
interfering inputs or both. These are closure to interfering input.
Let’s consider a Manometer as an example to explain the above terms.
• U-tube manometer is used to measure the differential pressure of fluid or gas (but not atmospheric
pressure) using manometric filed.
Response with respect to Desired Input:
The differential pressure,
P = P1 – P2 = g. h. (ρm – ρf)
Where,
ρm , ρr are the density of Mercury and Fluid respectively.
g is the gravitational force, h is the height difference
If unknown input is gas then, ρm >> ρg. So the equation becomes,
P = P1 – P2 = g. h. ρm
Hence, P ∝ ℎ
Here, P1 and P2 are desired input
Response with respect to Interfering Input

Suppose, the pressure P1 and P2 are same. Hence there will
be no output.
If Manometer is accelerated somehow then due to this
acceleration a differential pressure is created.
Therefore, the scale indicated a reading. Thus, acceleration
acts as interfering input.
Response with respect to Modifying Input

Ambient temperature is modifying input. Changes in ambient temperature change the length of calibrated scale.
It also changes the value of density of mercury.
So, it affects both interfering input and desired input.

Characteristics of Instrument and Measurement Systems:
Normally the measurement system characteristics are classified as
a) Static Characteristic
b) Dynamic Characteristic
Static Characteristics:
• While measuring a room temperature, an inaccuracy of ±0.50C is perfectly acceptable. But to measure the
temperature of a certain chemical process, more accuracy is needed. Hence, Accuracy of measurement is
thus one consideration in the choice of instrument for a particular application.
• Other parameters such as sensitivity, linearity and the reaction to ambient temperature changes,
reproducibility, drift, dead zone are further considerations.
• These attributes are collectively known as the static characteristics of instruments.
“ Static characteristics are normally obtained from static calibration. It affords the opportunity to check
the instrument against a known standard and subsequently to find out accuracy and error”
The main static characteristics are:

i) Accuracy ii) Sensitivity iii) Reproducibility iv) Drift v) Static Error vi) Dead Zone
Apart from the above listed characteristics, there are few others static characteristics.
True Value:
• True value refers to a value that should be obtained if the quantity under consideration is measured by an
“exemplar method”, that is a method agreed upon by experts as being sufficiently accurate for the purpose to
which the data will ultimately be put to use.
• It is not possible to determine the true of quantity by experiment means.
• True value may be defined as the average value of an infinite number of measured values when average
deviation due to various contributing factor will approach to zero.
Measured Value:
• Measured value is defined as the approximated value of true value.
• It can be found out by taking means of several measured reading during an experiment, by applying suitable
approximations on physical conditions.
Static Error:
• Static Error is defined as the difference of the measured value and the true value of the quantity.
• Mathematically it can be expressed as follows.
Static Error (or Absolute Error), = − =
= Measured value = True value
Relative Error or Fractional Error:

• It is defined as the ratio of the absolute error and the specified magnitude of the quantity.
Relative Error (or Fractional Error), = =
= Static Error (or Absolute Error) = True value

Problem 1: A thermometer reads 95.45oC and the static correction is given in the correction curve is -0.08oC.
Determine the true value of the temperature.
Answer:
At = Am+δc = 95.45-0.08 = 95.37°C
Problem 2: A voltage has a true value of 1.50V. An analog indicating instrument with a scale range of 0-2.5V
shows a voltage of 1.46V. What are the absolute error and correction? Express the error as a function of the
true value and full scale deflection.
Answer:
Absolute Error, δA = Am− At = 1.46 − 1.50 = − 0.04 V.
Remember, Absolute Correction, δc = − δA
Absolute Correction, δc = − δA = −(− 0.04 V) = 0.04 V.
δA −0.04
εr = (absolute error/true value) = X100% = X100% = − 2.67%
At 1.50
−0.04
Relative error as a percentage of full scale deflection = X100% = − 1.6%
2.50
Scale Range or Scale Deflection or Span:

The scale range of an instrument is defined as the difference between the largest and smallest readings of the
instrument.
Span = Xmax − Xmin
A thermometer was calibrated between 200oC & 500oC, So Span = 500oC − 200oC = 300oC
Error Calibration :
• Error calibration means that an instrument has been calibrated against a suitable standard and its static error is
determined at number of points on its scale.
• Calibration process involves a comparison of the particular instrument with either (a) a primary instrument (b) a
secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated or (c) an instrument of known
accuracy.
Reproducibility :
• It is a degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured.
• An instrument with perfect reproducibility has no drift.

Accuracy:
• Accuracy indicated the closeness of the measured value
with the actual or true value, and is expressed in the form
of the static error (= measured value − true value) as a
percentage of full scale reading.
Precision:
• Precision indicates the repeatability or reproducibility of an instrument
• For a true value of 100V a voltmeter reads 104,103,105,103 and 105V. The instrument cannot be depended
on more than ±5% accuracy but the precision in only 1%., i.e. deviation of 1 V from the average value.
Significant figures and Precision:

• Say a voltage is specified as 256V. The readings 255 & 257 are closure to 256 and these are three
significant figures. But if expressed as 256.1V then significant figure is 4. The numbers of significant figure
in a measurement is called precision.
Linearity:
• The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the linear characteristics as a percentage of the full scale
output.
• It also measures how constant is the ratio between input and output. It is usually expressed in %.
Accurate but
Non-linear
Linear but not accurate
This is better than Non-linear. Because Does not provide same voltage variation with same range of speed in case of
this can be compensated speed measurement
Hysteresis:
• Hysteresis effects show up different output values for the same input during loading and unloading.
Threshold:
• It is clear that in some instrument if the input is increased gradually from zero there will be some value below
which no output change is detected, this minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
Sensitivity:
• It measures the ratio between the change in the output and the corresponding change in the input (i.e. gain).
Resolution:
• It measures the minimum change in the input that is reflected in the output.
Dead Time :
• Dead time is defined as the time required by a measurement system to begin to respond to a change in
measurand.
Dead Zone :
• It is defined as the maximum input variation that is not reflected
in the output.

Aging:
• It measures the effect of time on the output
• The behavior changes because of the aging effect of the material.
Drift:
• It measures the variation in the output that is not caused by a variation in the input.
• Typically Drift is caused by temperature. Sometimes by humidity, moisture i.e. it is caused by environmental
factors.
• Drifts in measurement and instrument systems are classifier into three categories.
(i) Zero Drift (ii) Zonal Drift or Sensitivity Drift (iii) Span Drift or Zero Drift plus Sensitivity Drift
Zero Drift:
• It describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient condition.
• This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of the instrument.
Zonal Drift or Sensitivity Drift :

• It defines the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change.
• It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define how much drift there is for a unit change in each
environment parameter that the instrument characteristics are sensitive to.
Span Drift or Zero Drift plus Sensitivity Drift :

• If an instrument suffers both zero drift and sensitivity drift at the same time, then the typical modification of the
output characteristic is shown in following figure.

Loading Effect :
• Introduction of any element in a system results, invariably in extraction of energy from the system
thereby distorts the original signal.
• The distortion may take the form of attenuation (reduction in magnitude), waveform distortion, phase shift
and many a time all these features (undesirable) are put together. This makes ideal measurement impossible.
• The incapability of the system to measure, record or control faithfully is the loading effect.
• This may occur for 1) detector 2) signal conditioning and 3) data presentation elements.
Example: A voltmeter has sensitivity of 2000 Ω/V is used to measure voltage of a circuit having an output
resistance of 1kΩ and an open circuit voltage of 6V at its 10V scale. Find the error in measurement.
ZL for 10 V scale = (2000).(10) = 20KΩ and Z0 = 1KΩ
Errors in Measurement:
Accuracy of an instrument depends on
(a) Material (b) Design (c) Workmanship
• High degree of accuracy requires higher cost.

• In most of the instruments the accuracy is guaranteed within a certain percentage of the rated value.
• Thus the manufacturer has to specify the deviations from the nominal value of a particular quantity.
• The limits of these deviations from the specified value are defined as limiting errors or guarantee errors.
Example: The nominal magnitude of a resistor is 100 Ω with a limiting error of ± 10 Ω, the magnitude of resistance
will be between the limits ≥90 Ω and ≤110 Ω
Problem: Three resistors are rated as follows.
R1 = 37 Ω ± 5% R2 = 75 Ω ± 5% R3 = 50 Ω ± 5%
Determine the magnitude and limiting error in ohm and in percentage of the three resistances connected in series.
Solution:
R1 = 37 Ω ± (5× )= 37 ± 1.85 Ω
R2 = 75 Ω ± (5× )= 75 ± 3.75 Ω
R3 = 50 Ω ± (5× )= 50 ± 2.50 Ω
R = (37+75+50) ± (1.85 + 3.75 +2.50) = (162 ± 8.10) Ω
Percentage limiting error = ± (8.10 × ) = ± 5%

$%

Composite Error:
Sum or Differences of Two Quantities: Product of Two Components:

Sum, X =x1 + x2 X =x1 . x2
=> dX = dx1 + dx2 => lnX = ln(x1 . x2)
&' &(x1 + x2) => lnX = lnx1 + lnx2
=> =
' '
&x1 &x2
)x1 )x2
Differentiation => = +
=>
)*
= + ' x1 &' x2 &'
* * *
&' &x1 &x2
)x1 )x2 => = +
For Difference,
)*
= − ' x1 x2
* * *
,* ,x1 ,x2
=> =± + [considering worst possible case]
* x1 x2
Quotient: Power of a Factor:

x1 X = -.
Let, X =
x2
=> lnX = n. lnx1
⇒ lnX = lnx1 − lnx2
. &x1
&x1 &x2 => = .
Differentiation => = − ' x1 &'
' x1 &' x2 &'
)* )x1
&' &x1 &x2 => =±n [considering worst possible case]
=> = − * x1
' x1 x2
,* ,x1 ,x2
=> =± −
* x1 x2
[considering worst possible case]
Problem: The resistance of a circuit is found by measuring current flowing and power loss in a circuit. Find the
limiting errors in the measurement of resistance when the limiting errors in the measurement of power and current
are respectively ± 1.5% and ± 1%.
Solution:
We know, P = I2R
0%
=> R = P
=> lnR = lnP − 2 lnI
&2 &3
=> = −2
1 2 &1 3 &1
&1 &2 &3

=> = − 2.
1 2 3
&1 &2 &3

=> =± + 2. [Considering worst possible case]
1 2 3
1
=> = ± 1.50 + 2 × 1.0 = ±3.50%
1
Problem: The solution for the unknown resistance of a Wheatstone bridge is, RX = (R2*R3)/R1. Where, R1 = 100±
0.5%Ω, R2 = 1000± 0.5%Ω and R3 = 842±0.5%Ω. Determine the magnitude of the unknown resistance and limiting
error in percent and in ohm for the unknown resistance RX.
Solution:
RX = (R2*R3)/R1 = (1000*842)/100 = 8420Ω
Relative limiting error of unknown resistance
1' 1% 1 1
= + − = ± 0.5 + 0.5 − 0.5 = ±0.5%
1' 1% 1 1
Limiting Error in Ω = ± (0.5 * 8420/100)= ±42.1Ω

Types of Error:
• Basically there are three types of error.
i) Gross Error
ii) Systematic Error
iii) Random Error
Gross Error:
• This category of errors includes all the human mistakes while reading or recording.
• Mistakes in calculating the errors also come under this category.
Example: While taking the reading from the meter of the instrument one may read 21 as 31.
To Avoid Gross Error:

• Great care should be taken
• By increasing the number of experiments, the gross errors can be reduced. If each experiment takes
different reading at different points, then by taking average of more readings the gross errors can be
reduced.
Types of Error:
Systematic Error:
(i) Instrumental Error:
• These errors may be due to wrong construction, calibration of the measuring instruments.
• These types of error may be arises due to friction or may be due to hysteresis.
• In order to minimize the instrumental errors in measurement various correction factors must be
applied and in extreme condition instrument must be re-calibrated carefully.
(ii) Environmental Error:
• This type of error arises due to instrument’s external conditions.
• External condition includes temperature, pressure, humidity or magnetic filed.
(iii) Observational Error:
• As the name suggests these types of error are due to wrong observations.
• The wrong observations may be due to parallax.
Systematic Error affects ACCURACY
Random Error:
• After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that there are still some errors in measurement are left.
• These errors are known as random errors.
• Some of the reasons of the appearance of these errors are known but still some reasons are unknown.
• Hence we cannot fully eliminate these kinds of error
Random Error affects PRECISION

Dynamic Characteristics:
Dynamic Response:
• Now-a-days very fast and faithful response is desired from measurement system.
• Since, in many applications the input varies with time, so does the output.
• The behaviors of the dynamic inputs are of two types
(i) Transient (ii) Steady-state periodic
• For sudden changes/switching etc. transient condition exits and the solution contains a steady state
term and a transient term.
• The total response is
C(t) = Ct(t) + CSS(t)
• The transient response, Ct(t)=0 when limit of ‘t’ is infinite
• So at this condition,
C(t) = CSS(t) at t = infinite
Steady State Periodic Input:

• The steady state periodic input gives sinusoidal time varying, Fourier Analysis or phase relationship
etc.
Dynamic Characteristics:
The dynamic characteristics are
(a) Speed of Response (b) Measurement lag (c) Fidelity (d) Dynamic Error
a) Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measurement quantity.
b) Measurement lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system.
c) Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured quantity
without dynamic error.
d) Dynamic error: It is the differences between the true value of the quantity under measurement changing with
time and the value indicated by the measurement system with no static error.
Dynamic analysis:
a) Time domain analysis & b) Frequency domain analysis.
• For analysis linear time invariant systems are considered.
• For non-linear systems linearization is required.

References:
1. Alan S Morris, “Measurement & Instrumentation Principles”, 3rd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann.
2. A. K. Sawhney, “ A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Intrumentation” , 18th edition, Dhanpat
Rai & Co, New Delhi

W3
Measurement and Instrument
Lecture on
Measurement of Resistances
Prepared By
Mehedi Azad Shawon
Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE
American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB)
1
Lecture Outcomes
By the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:
1) Explain the difficulties for the measurement of resistance of

different ranges.
2) Determine unknown resistance of different ranges applying

methods of Wheatstone bridges.
3) Illustrate various measurement methods for high resistance

(i.e. insulation resistance)
4) Identify the fault location in a cable using appropriate

method
2
Resistance Measurement
 What are the major significance of resistance?
Since resistance are used in electrical circuits for variety of useful tasks, the
property of resistances play a significant role for determining the
performance parameter of various circuit elements. Thus it is highly
important to have a reasonable accurate information about the magnitude
of resistance in any electrical circuit.
Moreover, resistances are used as standard parameter for the measurement

of other electrical parameters like inductance, capacitances etc.
 How did you need to measure resistance with high level of accuracy?
Multi-meter works quite well if we need a rough value of resistance.
But for accurate values specially for resistances with very low and very high
values, we need specific methods. In this lecture we will discuss various
methods of resistance measurement.
3
Classification of Resistances
Figure 1: Classification of resistance
4
Choice of Methods
The choice of a suitable method of measuring resistance depends on several different
factors.
 The range of resistance to be measured is the most important factor.
 In any particular case the choice of method will be limited to one or two,
depending on the equipment available.
The different methods of resistance measurement can be divided into two classes,
1. laboratory methods &
2. workshop methods
This division again depends on the accuracy to which the measurement is to be made.
Laboratory Methods Workshop Methods
More accurate Simple but Less accurate

(with a particular method) (using device with direct reading)
5
Classification of Resistance Measurement Methods
Figure 2: Methods for measurement of different value resistances 6

Measurement of Low Resistance (< 1 Ω)
Ammeter-Voltmeter (AV) Method
Ammeter Voltmeter method is used to measure resistance of medium range. This
is very simple technique. There are two types of connections for Ammeter
voltmeter method of measuring resistance.
Figure 3(a) is suitable for measuring comparatively high resistances.
Where as figure 3(b) is suitable for measuring resistance of low values within the
ranges of medium value resistance. Both techniques require one voltmeter and
ammeter each. The readings from these are used to calculate the unknown
resistance using Ohm`s law R=V/I.
Figure 3: Ammeter-voltmeter method: (a) AV-1, (b) AV-2

7
Measurement of Low Resistance
Ammeter-Voltmeter (AV) Method-1
Now in figure 1(a), the voltmeter measures voltage drop across ammeter and the
unknown resistance, hence the measured resistance will be
Where,
Rm = measured value,
Ra = ammeter internal resistance and,
R = true value of the resistance
Hence, the relative error will be,
The error in this method will become smaller if R >> Ra
8
Ammeter-Voltmeter (AV) Method-2
Now in figure 3, the ammeter measures the sum of current through voltmeter and
resistance, hence the measured resistances will be
Where,
Rm = measured value,
Rv = Voltmeter internal resistance and,
R = true value of the resistance
Hence, the relative error will be,
The error in this method will become smaller if R << Rv
9
Example 1: Measurement of low resistance: AV method
A voltmeter of 600 Ω resistance and ammeter of 0.8 Ω resistance are used to measure two
unknown resistances by AV method. If the voltmeter reads 40 V and ammeter reads 120 mA
in both the cases, calculate the percentage error in the
values of measured resistances if
(a) The voltmeter is put across the resistance and the ammeter connected in series with
the supply
(b) The voltmeter is connected in the supply side and ammeter connected directly in
series with the resistance.
10
Example 1: Measurement of low resistance: AV method
(Answered)
(Answered)
11
Measurement of Medium Resistance (1Ω < R < 100kΩ)
Wheatstone Bridge Method
The Wheatstone bridge is the most commonly used circuit for measurement of
medium range resistances. The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistance arms,
together with a battery (voltage source) and a galvanometer (null detector)
Where,
P & Q is called ratio arm,
S = Standard resistance (can be variable type),
R = Unknown resistance
At null point (current through galvanometer becomes

zero), hence at balanced condition
Substituting the value of I1 & I2

in first equation ,
Figure 4: Wheatstone Bridge
12
Measurement of Medium Resistance
Error in Wheatstone Bridge Method
A Wheatstone bridge is a fairly convenient and accurate method for measuring

resistance. However, it is not free from errors as listed below:
1. Inaccuracy of the balance point due to insufficient sensitivity of the

galvanometer may result in false null points.
2. Bridge resistances may change due to self-heating (I2R) resulting in error in

measurement calculations.
3. Thermal emf generated in the bridge circuit or in the galvanometer in the

connection points may lead. This can be eliminated by reversing the battery
terminals.
4. Errors may creep into measurement due to resistances of leads and contacts.
This effect is however, negligible unless the unknown resistance is of very low
value.
13
Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge
 The use of Wheatstone bridge is limited to the measurements of resistances

ranging from a few ohm to several mega-ohms.
 The upper limit is set by the reduction in sensitivity to unbalance caused by high
resistance values.
 The lower limit for measurement is set by the resistance of the connecting leads
and by contact resistance at the binding posts
14
Kelvin Bridge Method
The Kelvin bridge or Thompson bridge is used for measuring the unknown resistances
having a value less than 1Ω. It is the modified form of the Wheatstone Bridge.
In Wheatstone Bridge, while measuring the low-value

resistance, the resistance of their lead and contacts increases
the resistance of their total measured value. This can easily
be understood with the help of the circuit diagram.
The r is the resistance of the contacts

that connect the unknown resistance
R to the standard resistance S.
The ‘m’ and ‘n’ show the range
between which the galvanometer is
connected for obtaining a null point.
Figure 5: Kelvin Bridge
When the galvanometer is connected to point ‘m’, the lead resistance r is added to the standard
resistance S. Thereby the very low indication obtains for unknown resistance R. And if the
galvanometer is connected to point n then the r adds to the R, and hence the high value of unknown
resistance is obtained. Thus, at point n and m either very high or very low value of unknown resistance
is obtained. 15
Kelvin Bridge Method (cont…)
So, instead of connecting the galvanometer from point, m and n we chose any
intermediate point say d where the resistance of lead r is divided into two equal parts,
i.e., r1 and r2
The presence of r1 causes no error in the measurement of

unknown resistance
From equation (1), we get
As
The above equation shows that if the galvanometer connects at
point d then the resistance of lead will not affect their results.
16
Limitations of Kelvin Bridge
 The above mention process is practically not possible to implement.

For obtaining the desired result, the actual resistance of exact ratio
connects between the point m and n and the galvanometer connects
at the junction of the resistor.
17
Kelvin Double Bridge Method
The ratio of the arms p and q are used to connect the galvanometer at the right place
between the point j and k. The j and k reduce the effect of connecting lead. The P and
Q is the first ratio of the arm and p and q is the second arm ratio.
The galvanometer is connected

between the arms p and q at a point d.
The point d places at the centre of the

resistance r between the point m and n
for removing the effect of the
connecting lead resistance which is
placed between the unknown
resistance R and standard resistance S.
Figure 6: Kelvin Double Bridge
18
Kelvin Double Bridge Method
The ratio of p/q is made equal to the P/Q.
Under balance condition zero current
flows through the galvanometer. The
potential difference between the point a
and b is equivalent to the voltage drop
between the points Eamd.
As we known, P/Q = p/q then above equation

becomes
For zero galvanometer deflection,
19
Important Notes about Kelvin Double Bridge Method
The above equation is the working equations of the Kelvins bridge. The equation
shows that the result obtains from the Kelvin double bridge is free from the impact
of the connecting lead resistance.
For obtaining the appropriate result, it is very essentials that the ratio of their arms
is equal. The unequal arm ratio causes the error in the result. Also, the value of
resistance r should be kept minimum for obtaining the exact result.
The thermo-electric EMF induces in the bridge during the reading. This effect can be
reduced by measuring the resistance with the reverse battery connection. The real
value of the resistance obtains by takings the means of the two.
20
Measurement of High Resistance (>100 kΩ)
Problem in measurement of High/Insulation Resistance
21
Guard Circuit for eliminating leakage current

leakage currents or capacitive currents we use a guard circuit. The concept of guard
circuit is to bypass the leakage current from the ammeter so as to measure the true
resistive current. Figure below shows two connections on voltmeter and micro ammeter
to measure R, one without guard circuit and one with guard circuit.
Figure 7: Guard circuit in high resistance measurement

22
Direct Deflection Method

The cable is immersed in slightly saline water for about 24 hours and the temperature is
kept constant and then the measurement is taken.
The insulation resistance of the cable 𝑅 = 𝑉/Ir
Figure 8: Direct deflection method
23
Loss of Charge Method

In this method, the insulation resistance R to be measured is connected in parallel with
a capacitor C and an electrostatic voltmeter.
The capacitor is charged to some suitable voltage by means of a battery having voltage
V and is then allowed to discharge through the resistance. The terminal voltage is
observed over a considerable period of time during discharge.
Figure 9: Loss of charge method
The voltage across the capacitor at any

instant t after the application of voltage is
24
Loss of Charge Method

Insulation resistance
The variation of voltage v with time is shown in

figure 10
From equation (1), if V, v, C and t are known the
value of R can be computed.
If the resistance R is very large than the time for

an appreciable fall in voltage is very large and
thus process may become time-consuming
Figure 10: Discharge of
capacitor across a resistance
a serious error may be made in the ratio V/v
causing a considerable corresponding error in the
measured value of R.
25
Detection of Fault Location in U/G cables
Loop Test:
There are several methods for locating the faults in underground cables. However, two
popular methods known as loop tests are :
(i) Murray loop test
(ii) Varley loop test
These simple tests can be used to locate the earth fault or short-circuit fault in
underground cables provided that a sound cable runs along the faulty cable. Both these
tests employ the principle of Wheatstone bridge for fault location.
26
Murray Loop Test:
Figure sss shows the circuit diagram for locating the earth fault by Murray loop test.
Here AB is the sound cable and CD is the faulty cable; the earth fault occurs at point F.
The far end D of the faulty cable is joined to the far end B of the sound cable through
a low resistance link.
Two variable resistances P and Q
are joined to ends A and C
respectively and serve as the
ratio arms of the Wheatstone
bridge.
Let
R = resistance of the conductor

loop up to the fault from the
test end
X = resistance of the other
length of the loop
Figure 10: Murray Loop Test

27
Murray Loop Test:
Note that P, Q, R and X are the four arms of the Wheatstone bridge. The resistances P
and Q are varied till the galvanometer indicates zero deflection.
In the balanced position of the bridge, we have,
If r is the resistance of each cable then R+X = 2r
Distance of fault point from test end is Figure 10: Equivalent circuit of
Murray Loop Test
28
Varley Loop Test:
The Varley loop test is also used to locate earth fault or short-circuit fault in U/G cables.
This test also employs Wheatstone bridge principle. It differs from Murray loop test in that
here the ratio arms P and Q are fixed resistances. Balance is obtained by adjusting the
variable resistance S
For earth fault or short-circuit

fault, the key K2 is first thrown
to position 1. The variable
resistance S is varied till the
bridge is balanced for
resistance value of S1. Then,
Figure 10: Varley Loop Test 29

Varley Loop Test:
Now key K2 is thrown to position 2 (for earth fault or short-circuit fault) and bridge is
balanced with new value of resistance S2. Then,
By putting this value in

previous equation we get
Figure 10: Varley Loop Test 30

Tutorial on Loop Test:
Problem 1: Murray loop test is performed on a faulty cable 300 m long. At balance, the
resistance connected to the faulty core was set at 15 Ω and the resistance of the resistor
connected to the sound core was 45 Ω. Calculate the distance of the fault point from the
test end.
31
Problem 2: In a test for a fault to earth on a 500 m length of cable having a resistance of
1 Ω per 1000 m, the faulty cable is looped with a sound cable of the same length but
having a resistance of 2·25 Ω per 1000 m. The resistance of the other two arms of the
testing network at balance are in the ratio 2·75 : 1. Calculate the distance of the fault from
the testing end of the cable.
32
Problem 3: Varley loop test is performed to locate an earth fault on a 20 km long cable.
The resistance per km of the single conductor is 20 Ω. The loop is completed with a similar
healthy conductor. At balance, the variable resistance connected to the faulty conductor is
200 Ω. The fixed resistors have equal values. Calculate the distance of the fault from the
test end
33
References:
[1] Measurement & Instrumentation Principle by Alan S. Morris
[2] Electrical and Electronic Measurement & Instrumentation by P. Purkait
[2] Principle of Power System, V. K. Mehta
34
W4
Measurement and Instrument
Lecture on
AC Bridge
Prepared By
Mehedi Azad Shawon
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE
American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB)
1
Lecture Outcomes
By the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:
1) Explain the application of different types of AC Bridges at

balanced condition.
2) Distinguish the functions of different AC Bridges.
3) Formulate the expressions of Quality Factor and Dissipation

Factor of an inductor and capacitor respectively.
4) Solve basic complex problems related to AC Bridge.
2
AC Bridge
 The AC bridge is a natural outgrowth of the Wheatstone Bridge. It consists of
four arms each having an impedance, a AC source of excitation and a balance
detector.
 The galvanometer in DC bridge is replaced here by a detector which is

sensitive to small alternating potential differences.
 Bridges with AC excitation are used to measure the unknown parameters such
as Inductance, Capacitance, Quality factor, Dissipation Factor etc.
 The AC bridge circuits are commonly used for the following applications:
 Phase Shifting
 Measuring the frequency of audio signal
 Providing feedback path for the oscillator and amplifiers
 Filtering out desirable signals etc.
3
AC Bridge
General Equation for a balanced AC Bridge
An ac bridge in its general form is shown in Figure

1, with the four arms being represented by four
unspecified impedances Z1 , Z2 , Z3 and Z4.
A balance bridge can be obtained by adjusting one

or more of the bridge arms. Balance is indicated by
zero response of the detector. At balance, no
current flows through the detector by ensuring the
voltage drop across A & B equals the voltage drop
across A & C, both in magnitude and phase.
Thus, we can write in terms of complex quantities:
………. (1)
Figure 1: General 4-arm AC Bridge

4
AC Bridge
General Equation for a balanced AC Bridge (Cont. ….)
Since no current flows through the detector at
balance condition,
……. (2)
……. (3)
Substituting the values from (2) & (3) into (1) >

5
AC Bridge
General Equation for a balanced AC Bridge (Cont. ….)
under balanced condition, the product of

impedances of one pair of opposite arms must be
equal to the product of impedances of the other pair
of opposite arms (with the impedances expressed as
complex numbers).
𝒁𝟏 ∠𝜽𝟏 𝒁𝟒 ∠𝜽𝟒 = 𝒁𝟐 ∠𝜽𝟐 𝒁𝟑 ∠𝜽𝟑
Based on the above complex relation, the balanced

condition for an AC Bridge must fulfill the following
two conditions:
1st condition 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟒 = 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑 and
2nd condition ∠ 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟒 = ∠ 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑

6
Types of AC Bridge
There are different types of AC Bridges that are being used for the
measurement of different parameters such as inductance, capacitance,
quality factor of inductors, frequency, dissipations factor & loss angle of
capacitor etc. Some of the major types of AC Bridge are as follows:
1) Maxwell’s Bridge
a) Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge (measurement of unknown L using standard L)
b) Maxwell’s Inductance-Capacitance Bridge (measurement of unknown L with low
Q-factor using standard C)
1) Hay’s Bridge (measurement of unknown L using high Q-factor using standard C & R)
2) Owen’s Bridge (measurement of unknown L using standard C)
3) Schering Bridge (measurement of unknown C using standard C)
4) Wien’s Bridge (measurement of unknown frequency)
7
Measurement of Self Inductance
1(a) Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
Care must be taken that the inductors L1 and L2 must

be placed at a distance from each other to avoid effects
of mutual inductance. Figure 2: Maxwell’s Inductance
The final expression shows that values of L1 and R1 Bridge
do not depend on the supply frequency. Thus, this
bridge configuration is immune to frequency variations
and even harmonic distortions in the power supply. 8
1(b) Maxwell’s Inductance-Capacitance Bridge
Under balance condition,
Here,
Thus,
Figure 3: Maxwell’s Inductance-

Capacitance Bridge
By separating the real
and imaginary part:
9
It can be seen from the above two equations that the values of L1 and R1 do not
depend on the supply frequency (𝜔). Thus, any kind of frequency variations or even
harmonic distortions in the power supply will not affect the measurement process.
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge and Inductance-

Capacitance Bridge, a resistance R1 is always
placed in series with the unknown Inductor L1.
This resistance represent losses that take place in
an inductor coil. An ideal inductor will be lossless
irrespective of the amount of current flowing
through it. However, in practical case any types of
inductor will have some non-zero resistance
associated with itself.
10
Quality Factor or the Q-Factor of a lossy inductor is used to indicate how closely the
real inductor comes to behave as an ideal inductor. Q-factor is a measure of the
efficiency of the inductor
The Q-factor of an inductor is defined as the ratio of its inductive reactance to its
resistance at a given frequency.
(by replacing the value of L1 & R1)
The above relation for the inductor Q factor indicates that this bridge is not
suitable for measurement of inductor values with high Q factors, since in that
case, the required value of R4 for achieving balance becomes impracticably
high.
11
Advantages:
1. The balance equations are independent of each other, thus the two
variables C4 and R4 can be varied independently.
2. Final balance equations are independent of frequency.
3. The unknown quantities can be denoted by simple expressions involving
known quantities.
Disadvantages:
1. The bridge, for its operation, requires a standard variable capacitor, which
can be very expensive if high accuracies are asked for. In such a case, fixed
value capacitors are used and balance is achieved by varying R4 and R2.
2. This bridge is limited to measurement of low Q inductors (1< Q < 10).
3. Maxwell’s inductance-capacitance bridge is also unsuited for coils with very
low value of Q since this bridge finds difficult to obtain balance while
measuring such low Q inductors.
12
(2) Hay’s Bridge
Hay’s bridge is a modification of Maxwell’s bridge.

This method of measurement is particularly suited
for high Q inductors.
The unknown inductor L1 of effective resistance

R1 in the branch AB is compared with the
standard known variable capacitor C4 on arm CD.
The other resistances R2 and R3 are known no-
inductive resistors.
Figure 4: Hay’s Bridge
13
(2) Hay’s Bridge Under balanced condition
14
(2) Hay’s Bridge By separating the real part
Putting this value of R1 in eq. (1):
15
(2) Hay’s Bridge
The above expression of L1 & R1 contain the frequency term (𝜔). Therefore,
the supply frequency must be known accurately for using the Hay’s bridge.
Quality Factor:
The above equation signifies that this Hay’s bridge is suitable for measurement of
unknown inductance with high Q-factor where the resistance R4 does not need to
be impracticably high value as like Maxwell’s Bridge. 16
(2) Hay’s Bridge
Now, replacing the value eq.(3) into eq.(2) :
Since the Hay’s Bridge is used for measurement of unknown inductance with high
Q-factor, the above equation can be simplified as follows:
17
(2) Hay’s Bridge
Advantages:
1. Gives simple expression of unknown inductance for Q-factor > 10.
Disadvantages:
1. Not suited for measurement of any inductor having Q-factor less than 10.
18
Quality Parameters of Real Capacitor
The quantifying parameters often used to describe performance of a capacitor are
ESR, its dissipation factor (DF), Quality Factor (Q-factor) and Loss Tangent (tan d)
Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR)

The potential energy across a capacitor is thus dissipated in all real capacitors as heat
loss inside its dielectric material. This loss is equivalently represented by a series
resistance, called the equivalent series resistance (ESR).
Dissipation Factor (DF)

Dissipation factor due to the non-ideal capacitor is
defined as the ratio of the resistive power loss in the
ESR to the reactive power oscillating in the capacitor
Loss Tangent (tan 𝜹)

Loss tangent of a real capacitor can also be
defined in the voltage triangle diagram of
Figure 6.9 as the ratio of voltage drop across
the ESR to the voltage drop across the
capacitor only. 19
Quality Parameters of Real Capacitor
Quality Factor of Capacitor:
The Q-factor of a real capacitor can be defined as the ratio

of the energy stored to that energy dissipated per cycle:
It can thus be deduced that the Q can be expressed as the ratio of the capacitive
reactance to the ESR at the frequency of interest.
A high quality capacitor (high Q-factor) will thus have low values of dissipation
factor (DF) and loss tangent (tan δ), i.e. less losses.
20
Measurement of Capacitance
(3) Schering Bridge
Schering bridges are most popularly used these days in industries for measurement
of capacitance, dissipation factor, and loss angles
The unknown capacitor C1 along with its internal

resistance r1 (representing loss) placed on the arm AB is
compared with the standard loss-less capacitor C2
placed on the arm AC. This capacitor C2 is either an air
or a gas capacitor to make it loss free.
Under balanced condition
Figure 5: Schering Bridge

21
Measurement of Capacitance
(3) Schering Bridge
By separating the real and imaginary part:
Dissipation Factor:
Figure 5: Schering Bridge

22
Measurement of Frequency
(3) Wien’s Bridge
Under balanced condition:
By separating the
imaginary part:
Figure 6: Wein’s Bridge
23
Measurement of Frequency
(3) Wien’s Bridge
In most bridges, the parameters are so chosen that,
R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
Then, the equation of frequency becomes:
Sliders for the resistors R1 and R2 are

mechanically coupled to satisfy the
criteria R1 =R2=R
Wien’s bridge is frequency sensitive. Thus, unless the

supply voltage is purely sinusoidal, achieving balance may
be troublesome, since harmonics may disturb balance
Figure 6: Wein’s Bridge condition. Use of filters with the null detector in such
cases may solve the problem.
24
Tutorials: AC Bridge
Problem 1:
25
Problem 2:
26
Problem 3: A Maxwell’s Inductance-Capacitance bridge is used for calculation of unknown
inductive impedance. The bridge parameter at balanced condition are as follows:
Pure resistance arms = 2.5 kΩ and 50 kΩ. In between these two resistors, the third arm
has a capacitor of value 0.012 μF in parallel with a resistor of value 235 kΩ. Find the series
equivalent of the unknown impedance.
Solution Referring to the diagram of a Maxwell’s inductance-capacitance bridge:

After deriving the equation at balanced condition we get:
27
Problem 4: The four arms of a bridge are connected as follows:
Arm AB: A choke coil L1 with an equivalent series resistance r1
Arm BC: A noninductive resistance R3
Arm CD: A mica capacitor C4 in series a non-inductive resistance R4
Arm DA: A noninductive resistance R2
When the bridge is supplied from a source of 450 Hz is given between terminals A and
C and the detector is connected between nodes B and D, balance is obtained the following
conditions: R2 = 2400 Ω, R3 = 600 Ω, C4 = 0.3 μF and R4 = 55.4 Ω. Series resistance of the
capacitor is 0.5 Ω. Calculate the resistance and inductance of the choke coil.
28
Arm AB: A choke coil L1 with an equivalent series resistance r1
Arm BC: A noninductive resistance R3
Arm CD: A mica capacitor C4 in series a non-inductive resistance R4
Arm DA: A noninductive resistance R2
When the bridge is supplied from a source of 450 Hz is given between terminals A and
C and the detector is connected between nodes B and D, balance is obtained the following
conditions: R2 = 2400 Ω, R3 = 600 Ω, C4 = 0.3 μF and R4 = 55.4 Ω. Series resistance of the
capacitor is 0.5 Ω. Calculate the resistance and inductance of the choke coil.
29
AB: A capacitor C1 with an ESR r1, BC: A non-inductive resistance R3
CD: A noninductive resistance R4, DA: A capacitor C2 with an ESR r2 in series with a
resistance R2
A supply of 500 Hz is given between terminals A and C and the detector is connected
between nodes B and D. At balance, R2 = 5 Ω, R3 = 1000 Ω, R4 = 3000 Ω, C2 = 0.3 μF and r2 =
0.25 Ω. Calculate the values of C1 and r1, and also dissipation factor of the capacitor.
Solution:
30
References:
[1] Measurement & Instrumentation Principle by Alan S. Morris
[2] Electrical and Electronic Measurement & Instrumentation by P. Purkait
31
Measurement And Instrument
Ahmed Mortuza Saleque
Assistant Professor
American International University-Bangladesh
Spring 2015-16
High Voltage Measurement and Testing

Types of Testing:
• High voltage testing includes a large number of methods. Here, few methods will be considered.
• Sustained Low Frequency Test
• Constant Direct Current Test
• High Frequency Test
• Surge or Impulse Test
Sustained Low Frequency Test:
• These tests are the most commonly used employing frequency of 50 Hz.
• These tests are used for routine voltage testing of motor, switch gear and other electrical equipment after
manufacture or in some cases after installation.
• The voltage normally used is 2 to 3 kV.
• These tests are also used in determination of dielectric constant and dielectric loss of specimens of insulation.
• Again, they are carried out on high voltage transformer, porcelain insulators and high voltage cables etc. for work
testing.
• The test voltage in such cases may be as high as 2000 kV.

Constant Direct Current Test:
• In electric power transmission, it is desired to use as high voltage as possible since increase in transmission
voltage results in an increase in efficiency of transmission.
• Before high voltage overhead lines are energized, the insulation of every part connected with the lines must
withstand continuously for half an hour, a voltage as specified below.

Normal System Voltage Test Voltage
Below 10 kV Twice the normal voltage
Above 10 kV Normal voltage + 20 kV
• Therefore, the transmission lines and high voltage cables are subjected to a very high voltage for a
considerable interval of time.
• If such voltage tests are carried out with an A.C. voltage supply, then high voltage transformer is required which
is costly and has transportation problem.
• Thus in order to overcome the difficulties encountered with high A.C. voltage supply, high voltage D.C. testing is
done.

High Voltage High Frequency Test:
• The break down and flashover of porcelain insulators used on power transmission lines is often due to high
frequency disturbances in the transmission lines.
• These high frequency disturbances are either due to switching operation or due to some external causes and
are usually damped high frequency oscillations.
• It has been found that even though the porcelain insulator has satisfactorily withstand the sustained low
frequency high voltage tests, it breaks down at a much lower voltage at high frequencies owing to increased
dielectric loss and heating.
• To increase reliable operation of insulators under disturbances caused by switching and arcing, they must be
subjected to high frequency test.
• High frequency tests are also carried out for insulators used for communication purposes. Frequency ranging
from several kHz to a MHz or more are used for such purposes.

Surge or Impulse Test:
• These tests are used to determine the effect of voltage surges due to atmospheric disturbances of very short
duration on electrical insulations and their individual parts.
• The dangerous over voltages to which power systems are exposed to are caused by lightning.
• Lightning may produce an over voltage on an overhead line either by a direct stroke to the line or by an indirect
stroke.
• An indirect stroke occurs when a charged cloud above and near to the line, electrostatically induces charges of
opposite sign to that of its own charge in the line.
• These charges are bound as long as the cloud remains near without discharging its electricity by lightning
stroke.
• But if the cloud is suddenly discharged, the induced charges in the line are no longer bound, but travel with the
velocity of light along the line to equalize the potential every where.
• The result is that a voltage wave travels along the line.

Surge or Impulse Test (Contd.):
• The wave is characterized by a step rise of voltage
up to its peak value followed by a slower drop to
zero voltage.
• The probable maximum voltage appearing on a
line due to direct stroke is 10-15 MV and that by an
indirect stroke is 500 kV.
• The danger to the electric installation comes from the fact that this over voltage acts across the insulation and
that the time taken by the voltage to rise to its peak value is very small.
• This imposes very severe voltage stresses on the insulators, transformer windings, circuit breakers, bushing
and other equipment.
• If the voltage stress exceeds the strength of the insulation, a flash over or a puncture results causing a short
circuit and power outage.
• If a power arc flows, there may be disastrous results in damage to the equipment whose repair may cost
considerable amount of money.

Testing Apparatus:
• The following testing apparatus is used for sustained low frequency tests. This apparatus is usually common for
all types of high voltage tests.
1. High Voltage Testing Transformer
2. Equipment for Voltage regulation
3. Control gear and protective devices
4. Equipment for voltage measurement

High Voltage Transformers:
• High voltage testing transformers are single phase core type, oil immersed and self cooled, operated at the
same frequency as the normal working frequency at which the test specimens operate i.e. the power frequency.
• They may also be used for higher frequencies with rated voltage or for lower frequencies, if the voltages are
reduced depending upon the frequency in order to avoid saturation of the iron core.
• There is not much difference between a high voltage testing transformer and a single phase power transformer
as regards the thermal rating.
• However, HV testing transformers are designed with a smaller value of the flux density in the core to avoid
excessive magnetizing currents.
• The testing transformers are also designed with compact and well insulated high voltage winding.
• Therefore, a single phase testing transformer may be compared with a potential transformer as regards its
construction.

High Voltage Transformers (contd.):
• A single phase core type HV testing transformer is shown below.

• A single phase core type HV testing transformer is shown below.
• The primary winding is usually rated for rated voltages below 1 kV but might often be split up into two or more
winding sections which can be connected in series or parallel to increase voltage regulation capabilities.
• The iron core is earthed and so are the one terminal of each of the two primary and secondary windings.
• Figure (a) shows a grounded metal tank for which a HV bushing is necessary to bring the high voltage out of the
tank.
• In figure (b), the bushing is dispensed with and a co-axial cable is used for high voltage connection which results in
improved connection between testing transformer and the test object.
• In this arrangement, the active part of the transformer is placed in an isolating shell, thereby avoiding the use of
bushing and therefore reduces the height of the transformer, however, the heat dissipation is impaired with this
arrangement.
• In both the cases, the primary winding (LV winding) is close to the iron core and is surrounded by the secondary
winding (HV winding).
• This arrangement reduces the leakage flux and increases the coupling between the two windings.
• The shape and cross section of HV winding is a reference to layout of this coil.
• The beginning (grounded end) of the HV winding is located at a side close to the core and the end close to a
sliced metal shield, which prevents too high field intensities at HV potential.
• Between both ends, the single turns are arranges in layers, therefore, form co-axial capacitors of high values.
• In order to keep the potential distribution uniform under transient conditions, the capacitance have to be made
equal. This is done by using reduced width of insulating layers with increasing diameters.
• Thus we have trapezoidal shape for the HV winding.
• The transformers used for insulation testing need not to be of a high kVA rating because the current taken by the
transformer is limited by inserting external resistances when the specimen under test breaks down.
• However, transformers used for cable tasting are designed to deliver large currents owing to capacitive (charging)
currents drawn by the cables.
• Attention must be paid to regulation and cooling methods employed for such transformers.

• Special constructional features are incorporated in high voltage transformers to eliminate corona effects as far
as possible.
• This high voltage terminal of the secondary winding and all other metal part which have a high potential with
respect to earth, must be constructed in such a way that sharp corners are avoided.
• This is done to avoid excessive voltage gradients which cause corona.
• If this arrangement is not possible, corona shield should be provided.
• For voltages up to about 500 kV, a single transformer is used.
• For voltages above 500 kV, two transformers are then cascaded.

Transformer cascading for voltages above 500kV:
• A low voltage supply is given to the primary winding of transformer 1. The tank of this transformer is earthed.
• A lead is taken from the one end of the secondary winding and the other end is earthed.
• This lead is taken out of the transformer through a high voltage bushing which provides insulation for full
secondary voltage between this lead and the tank (earth).
• The secondary winding is tapped at a point and another lead is taken out of the tank through the HV busing.
• These two leads are connected to the primary winding of transformer.


Transformer cascading for voltages above 500kV (Contd.):
• One end of the secondary winding of transformer 2 is connected to the tank which is insulated from earth for a
voltage equal to the secondary voltage of transformer 1.
• The other end of the secondary winding of transformer 2 is taken out with the help of a lead passing through a
high voltage bushing.
• This lead forms the high voltage terminal of the transformer. The output voltage for test purpose is taken between
the HV terminal and earth.
• This is equal to the sum of the secondary voltages of the two transformers. The output voltage can be increased
further by addition of more transformers connected in cascade.

Voltage Control:
• It is very important in high voltage measurements that the output voltage which is fed to the test specimen is
varied smoothly. Any abrupt changes in voltage will impose voltage surges on the specimen and will also affect the
accuracy of measurements.
• It is equally important that the voltage regulating device should not distort the waveform of output voltage.
• The method of voltage regulation depends upon whether a separate alternator is being used to supply the testing
transformer or an available supply is being fed to the testing transformer.
• A separate alternator is usually used except in case of small testing establishments which carry out routine testing
work.
• When a separate alternator is used, the voltage regulation is carried out by variation of the alternator field current.
• If a separate alternator is not used then the voltage regulation is done by
1. By means of a tapped transformer
2. By means of a Variac
3. By means of an induction regulator
4. By insertion of resistance in the supply circuits
5. By insertion of inductance in the supply circuits


Electrostatic Instruments:
• In electrostatic instruments, the deflecting torque is produced by action of electric field on charged conductors.
• Such instruments are essentially voltmeters, but they may be used with the help of external components to
measure current and power.
• There are two ways in which the force acts:
1. One type involves two oppositely charged electrodes. One of them fixed and the other is movable. Due to
the force of attraction, the movable electrode is drawn towards the fixed one.
2. In the other type, there are forces of attraction or repulsion or both between the electrodes which cause
rotary motion of the moving electrode.
• In both cases, the mechanism resembles a variable capacitor and the force or torque is due to the fact that,
mechanism tend to move the moving electrode to such a position where the energy stored is maximum.

Electrostatic Voltmeter:
• It contains two plates (fixed and movable) and electrostatic force of attraction developed is used to measure high
voltage.
• The stored energy is used as a basis for derivation of force and torque equations.
Linear Motion:
• In the above figure, there are two oppositely charged plates and one plate is fixed (A) and the other is movable
(B). A spring is connected to a fixed point.
• Let, a potential difference of V volt is applied to the plates, then a force of attraction F exists between them
causing the movement of plate B towards plate A until this force is balanced by the spring. The capacitance
between the plates is then C and the stored energy J

Electrostatic Voltmeter (Contd.):
Linear Motion (Contd.):
• Now, let there be a small increment dV in the applied voltage, then the plate B will move a small distance dx
towards A. When the voltage is being increased, a capacitive current flows and is given by,
⇒ . . + .
The electrical input energy is:
. . . . + .
Changed in stored energy,
1 1
+ + −
2 2
1 1
+ +2 + −
2 2
Neglecting higher order terms,
1
+
2

Electrostatic Voltmeter (Contd.):
Linear Motion (Contd.):
From the principle of the conservation of energy,
Input Electrical Energy = Increase in Stored Energy + Mechanical Work Done
Or, . . + . + +
Rotational Motion:
For rotational motion, the Deflection Torque
= Angular Displacement
If the instrument is spring controlled or has a suspension then,
Controlling torque,
Where, K = Spring Constant
= Deflection angle
At steady state,
Since, the deflection is proportional to the square of voltage to be measured, the instrument can be used on both AC
and DC.

Measurement of RMS values of voltage:
Different methods are used in the measurement of RMS values of voltage:
1. Electrostatic Voltmeters
2. Transformer Ratio Method
3. Potential Divider Method
4. Standard Impedance Method
5. Potential Transformer Method
Measurement of Peak Values of Voltage:

Several methods are used. Some of them are listed below.
1. Transformer Ratio
2. Sphere gaps
3. Rectifier capacitor charging current method
4. Ryall crest voltmeter
5. Ionic wind voltmeter

Sphere Gap:
• The breakdown voltage of a spark gap between two metal spheres may be used
as a measure of voltages up to the highest value in high voltage testing.
• Two spheres are placed vertically one above, separated by an air gap.
• The lower sphere is earthed, the voltage between the spheres is raised till a
spark passes between the two sphere.
• The value of voltage required to spark over (break down) depends upon the
dielectric strength of the air, the size of spheres, the distance between the
spheres and many other factors.
• The method is simple and peak voltages may be measured from about 2 to 2500
kV by getting a spark over and then referring to the calibration tables.
• Sphere gaps may also be used for measurement of voltage in surge (impulse)
tests by break down.
Magnetic Measurement
• Electrical and magnetic phenomena are closely associated with each other.
• The operating characteristics of electrical machines, apparatus and instruments are greatly influenced by the
properties of ferromagnetic materials used for their construction.
• Therefore, magnetic measurements are very important in designing and manufacturing electrical equipment.
• The principle requirements in magnetic measurements are as follows.
1. The measurement of magnetic field strength in air
2. The determination of B-H curve and hysteresis loop for soft ferromagnetic materials
3. The determination of eddy current and hysteresis loses of soft ferromagnetic materials subjected to
alternating magnetic fields
4. The testing of permanent magnets
• In magnetic measurements, the inaccuracies are due to the following reasons:
1. The conditions in the magnetic specimen under test are different from those assumed in
calculations
2. Magnetic materials are not homogeneous
3. There is no uniformity between different batches of test specimens even if such batches are of the
same composition
• Types of Tests:
1. Ballistic Tests
2. A.C. Testing
3. Steady State Tests

Ballistic Tests:
• These tests are generally employed for the determination of B-H curves and hysteresis loops of ferromagnetic
materials.
• The ballistic methods do not directly measure the value of flux density in a magnetic material corresponding to
a particular value of magnetizing force but measure instead the changes in flux brought about by changes in
magnetizing force.
• These changes in flux density are either measured by a flux meter or ballistic galvanometer.
AC Testing:
• This test gives information about eddy current and hysteresis losses in magnetic materials.
Steady State Test:

• These tests give the steady value of flux density existing in the air gap of a magnetic circuit.
Measurement of Flux Density (Ballistic Tests):
• The measurement of flux density inside a specimen can be done by winding a search coil over the specimen.
• The search coil is known as a “B-coil”.
• This search coil is then connected to a ballistic galvanometer or to a flux meter.
• A ring specimen wound with a magnetizing winding which carries a current I.
• A search coil is wound on the specimen and connected through a resistor and calibrating coil to a ballistic
galvanometer.
• The current through the magnetizing coil is reversed and
therefore the flux linkages of the search coil changing inducing
an EMF in it.
• This EMF sends a current through the ballistic galvanometer
causing it to deflect.
• Let,
Flux linking the search coil
R = Resistance of the ballistic galvanometer circuit
N = Number of turns in the search coil
t = Time taken to reverse the flux
Average EMF induced in the search coil,

Measurement of Flux Density (Ballistic Tests) (Contd.):
Average current through the ballistic galvanometer,
2
!
And the charge,
2
"
!
Now,
Throw of the galvanometer
#$ Constant of the galvanometer
Therefore,
Charge indicated by ballistic galvanometer,
" #$
%&
or, #$
'
*+
( )
,
And the flux density,
./ )*+
-
01 2 03 ,45
Determination of B-H curve:
Two methods are available for the determination of B-H curve
1. Method of Reversals
2. Step by step method
Step by Step Method:
• Here, the magnetizing winding is supplied through a
potential divider having a large number of tapings.
• The tapings are arranged such that the magnetizing
force H may be increased, in a number of suitable
steps, up to the desired maximum value.
• After demagnetizing the specimen the switch S2 is set
on taping 1 and the switch S1 is closed.
• The throw of galvanometer indicated the increase in
flux density from 0 to some value B1.
• The value of the corresponding magnetizing force H1
may be calculated from the value of current flowing in
the magnetizing winding at taping 1.

Determination of B-H curve:
Step by Step Method (Contd.):
• The magnetizing force is then increased to H2 by
switching S2 suddenly to tapping 2 and the
corresponding increase in flux density ΔB is observed
from the thrown of galvanometer.
• The flux density B2 is calculated by (B1 + B) for the
corresponding H2. And thus the process goes on up to
the maximum tapping point.
Alternating Current Magnetic Testing:
• This testing is done in order to determine the iron losses in magnetic materials at different values of flux density
(B) and frequency (f) and to separate the two components of iron losses, i.e.
a) Eddy Current Losses
b) Hysteresis Losses
Iron Loss Curves:
• When a magnetic material is subjected to an alternating field, loss in power
occurs due to hysteresis and eddy currents. This loss is called Iron or Core Loss.
• The hysteresis loss may be determined from the hysteresis loop obtained from
DC test.
• But this hysteresis loss may differ under actual working alternating magnetizing
conditions.
• The eddy current loss can be measured only under AC conditions.
• It is always convenient to measure the ambient hysteresis and eddy current losses i.e. total iron loss.

Separation of Iron Loss:
• Energy loss due to hysteresis in per unit volume is given by
67 - Area of Hysteresis loop
Hysteresis loss per unit volume = Frequency × Area of Hysteresis loop
Hysteresis loss per unit volume,
>
9: ;<-= watt
Where,
; Hysteresis co-efficient
f = Frequency, Hz
Bm = Maximum flux density, wb/m2
k = Steinmetz co-efficient ranges from 1.6 to 2
Again,
Eddy current loss per unit volume,
@>ABCB DE
B FB
9? watt
GH
Where,
'JK LMNO?
IC = Form Factor =
PL?QMR? SMNO?
t = Thickness of laminations, m
T = Resistivity of material, Ω m
Separation of Iron Loss (Contd.):
• Total iron loss per unit volume,
>
4IC < -=
9U 9: + 9? ;<-= +
3T
Hence, the total iron loss for a given specimen,
@>AB CB DE
B FB
9U > +
X./Y × ;<-=
GH
9U > +I I < -
I: <-= ? C =
[For a given specimen volume, thickness and resistivity are constant]

I: and I? are constant.
It is possible to separate the hysteresis loss and eddy current loss by the variation of frequency or of form factor (kf)
if Bm = Constant

Variation of Frequency:
• In this test, the form factor kf and the maximum flux density Bm are remain constant.
• Therefore,
9U I <+I <
Where, I IZ -=
I I? IC -=
[\
Or, I +I <
C
Variation of Form Factor:

• Here, the frequency f and the maximum flux density Bm are kept constant.
• Therefore,
9U IG + I@ IC
Where, IG IZ <-=
I@ I? < -=
Problem: In a test on a specimen of total weight 13 kg the measured values of iron loss at a given value of peak flux
density were 17.2 W at 40 Hz and 28.9 W at 60 Hz. Estimate the values of hysteresis and eddy current losses in
w/kg at 50 Hz for the same value of peak flux density.
Solution:
Therefore,
9U 9: + 9? I <+I <
].
=> 40I + I (40)
G
@G
=> I + 40I (i)
Gaa
b.c
Similarly 60I + I (60)
G
bc
=> I + 60I (ii)
]baa
Subtracting eq. (ii) from eq. (i)

k2 = 1.987 X 10-4
k1 = 0.02513
9: I < 0.02513 X 50 1.256 g
9? I < 1.987 X 10−4 X (50)2 = 0.497 W

Illumination Measurement
Some Useful Definitions:

Optical Transducer: An optical transducer is a light sensor. It produces an electrical output in response to light
input.
Monochromatic Light: If a beam of light has single or very narrow band of frequency it is called monochromatic
light.
Point Source: A point source of light which is considered with sufficient accuracy to be concentrated at a point.
Solid Angle: A three-dimensional analog of an angle, such as that subtended by a cone or formed by planes
meeting at a point. It is measured in steradians.
Solid Angle, Ω = A/r2
A sphere contains 4πr2/r2 = 4π steradian
Some Useful Definitions (Contd.):
Lumen: If a point source of one candela is placed at the center of a perfectly sphere of radius 1m, then the light
passing through one steradian or an area of 1m2 locating on the surface of the sphere is called a Lumen.
The symbol of Lumen is lm and luminous flux is φ
Luminous Intensity: It is the measure of luminous flux per unit solid angle from a point source.
Unit: lm/sr (The SI unit is candela)
Illumination or illuminance: The density of light energy incident on a surface is known as illumination or
illuminance.
h&
Illumination = is lm/m2 or lux
hP

Photometric/ Radiometric Measurement System:
Fig. Photometric/ Radiometric Measurement system
• A photometric measurement system is a device that measures the intensity and sterance of a light beam.
• Any basic photometric measurement consists of a light source such as sunlight, LED or laser beam.
• The light is modulated with the help of light suppressor, light attenuator and filters before it is made incident
upon the detector. The detectors used are photoelectric transducers.
Optical Detectors:
Optical Sources:
1. Photo emissive cells (Gas filled or vacuum tubes)
1) Sun light : 460nm -max intensity ,UV-IR
2. Semiconductor photo-electric transducer
2) Incandescent lamp: 400nm-1100nm
Output:
3) Fluorescent sources ( sensitive to eyes)
a) Change in resistance ΔR
4) Light emitting diodes-forward biased
b) Change in current output ΔI
5) Lasers: semiconductors - GaAs
c) Change in voltage output ΔV
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):
• The conductivity of LDR is proportional to the intensity of light or the resistivity of LDR is inversely
proportional to the intensity of light incident upon it.
• The incident light energy releases charge carriers which increases flow of current produced by an
applied voltage.
• These semiconductors (LDR) are also called photoconductive cells.
• LDR is a slow device.
• Two most commonly used photoconductive semiconductor materials are cadmium sulphide (CdS) with a
band gap of 2.42 eV and cadmium selenide (Cd Se) with a band gap of 1.74 eV.
• Sensitivity: S = ΔR/ΔH Ω/Wm-2
ΔR = change in resistance and ΔH = change in radiation
Rt = Ri+(Rf - Ri)(1-exp(-t/τ) ), Rf =dark resistance and Ri =final resistance after application of beam.

Problem: A CdS cell has a dark resistance of 100 kΩ and a resistance of 30 kΩ in a day light. Find the
resistance of the cell after 10 ms of application of a beam. The time constant i =72ms.
Solution:
Rt = Ri + (Rf - Ri)(1- exp(-t/ i) ) = 30+(100-30)(1-exp(-10/72)) = 39.1kΩ.
Photo Diodes:
R = (ΔV/ΔI), is very high (MΩ).

• ‘R’ depends on light intensity.
• The photodiode is reversed biased.
• The reverse biased saturation current is dependent upon the intensity on incident light.
• The frequency response of a photodiode is largely dependent upon the intrinsic capacitance which is typically 2pF
for a reverse bias -10V.
• The cut off frequency: fc=1/(2*π*RL*C) [C, the capacitance of photodiode]

• Application: Optical communication (Area is small or where space is restricted).
Problem: The effective area of a photo diode is 0.2*10-6 m2 and the irradiance is 250W/m2. Calculate the incident
power. If the load resistance is 10kΩ and the capacitance of the diode is 2pf, find the cut-off frequency.
Solution:
Incident Power = 250*0.2*10-6 =50μW
Cut-off frequency = fc = 1/(2* π *RL*C) =1/(2* π *10*10000*2*10-12) = 8MHz.
[Photo transistors faster device (1μsec to 10μsec), Photo voltaic cell produces high voltage And Photo thyristor -
LASCR.]

References:
1. Alan S Morris, “Measurement & Instrumentation Principles”, 3rd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann.
2. A. K. Sawhney, “ A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Intrumentation” , 18th edition, Dhanpat
Rai & Co, New Delhi

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Measurement And Instrument

Ahmed Mortuza Saleque

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -1-

Common Measured Variables:

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -2-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -3-

Measurement System Applications:

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -4-

1) Electronic and Computer based measurement systems

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -5-

• The pressure-measuring device shown in Figure.

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -6-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -7-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -8-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -9-

Deflection & Null type Instruments

Null Type Instrument:

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -10-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -11-

Deflection & Null type Instruments

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -12-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -13-

Applications of measurement systems

c) Experimental engineering analysis:

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -14-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -15-

Example of Data Presentation Element:

Fig. Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -16-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -17-

Response with respect to Interfering Input

Response with respect to Modifying Input

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -18-

The main static characteristics are:

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -19-

Relative Error or Fractional Error:

Relative Error (or Fractional Error), = =

= Static Error (or Absolute Error) = True value

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -21-

Scale Range or Scale Deflection or Span:

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -22-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -23-

Significant figures and Precision:

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -25-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -26-

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -27-

Zonal Drift or Sensitivity Drift :

Span Drift or Zero Drift plus Sensitivity Drift :

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -28-

ZL for 10 V scale = (2000).(10) = 20KΩ and Z0 = 1KΩ

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -29-

• High degree of accuracy requires higher cost.

R = (37+75+50) ± (1.85 + 3.75 +2.50) = (162 ± 8.10) Ω

Percentage limiting error = ± (8.10 × ) = ± 5%

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -30-

Sum or Differences of Two Quantities: Product of Two Components:

Quotient: Power of a Factor:

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -31-

&1 &2 &3

&1 &2 &3

Limiting Error in Ω = ± (0.5 * 8420/100)= ±42.1Ω

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -32-

To Avoid Gross Error:

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -33-