MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

MODULE 1
Classification and Functional Elements of Instrument/ measurement system

1.1 Measurement
1.2 Significance of measurement
1.3 Instruments and measurement systems
1.4 Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments
1.5 Deflection & Null type instruments and their comparison
1.6 Analog and digital modes of operation
1.7 Functions of instruments and measurement systems
1.8 Applications of measurement systems
1.9 Elements of generalized measurement system
1.10 Input-output configuration of measuring instruments and measurement
Systems

1.11 Methods of correction for Interfering and Modifying inputs

1.12 Transducers
1.13 Classifications of transducer
Primary & secondar
Active & passive
Analog and digital transducers

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

Classification and Functional Elements of Instrument/ measurement system

1.1 Measurement
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison between the
quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard. Since two quantities are
compared the result is expressed in numerical values.
1.2 Significance of Measurements
There are two major functions of all branches of engineering:
1. Design of equipment and processes, and
2. Operation and maintenance of equipment and processes
Both these functions require measurements. This is because proper and economical design,
operation and maintenance require feedback of information. This information is supplied by
making suitable measurements.
1.3 Instruments and Measurement systems
• Measurement generally involves using an instrument as a physical means of determining a
quantity or variable. The instrument serves as an extension of human faculties and enables
the man to determine the value of an unknown quantity which his unaided human faculties
cannot measure.
• An instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity
or variable.
• In more complex measurement situations, however a measuring instrument may consist of
several separate elements these elements may consist of transducing elements which convert
the measurand to an analogous from.
• The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate measures and then fed to the
end devices to present the results of the measurement for the purposes of display or control
the above-mentioned components might be contained within one or more boxes, and the
boxes holding individual measurement elements might be either close together or physically
separated.
1.4 Mechanical, Electrical, and Electronic Instruments
The history of development of instruments encompasses three phases of instruments, viz.:
1) Mechanical instruments,
2) Electrical instruments,
3) Electronic instruments
Mechanical Instruments:
✓ These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions.
✓ But they suffer from a very major disadvantage, that they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient (inputs) conditions.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

✓ Fail to respond quickly to dynamic inputs because these instruments have moving parts
that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a large mass.
✓ Mass presents inertia problem. Thus, it would be virtually impossible to measure a 50 Hz
voltage by a mechanical method, but it is relatively easy to measure slowly varying
pressure.
✓ Another disadvantage of mechanical instruments is that most of them are potential source
of noise and cause pollution of silence.
Electrical Instruments:
✓ Electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than mechanical
methods.
✓ The electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical meter movement as indicating
device. This mechanical movement has some inertia and therefore these instruments have
a limited time (and hence, frequency) response.
✓ For example, some electrical recorders can give full scale response in 0·2 s, the
majority of industrial reorders have responses of 0·5 to 24 s. Some galvanometer follows
50 Hz variations but even these are too slow for present day requirements of fast
measurements.
Electronic Instruments
Most of the scientific and industrial measurements require very fast responses. The mechanical
and electrical measurements and systems cannot cope up with these requirements. The necessity
to step up response time and also the detection of dynamic changes in certain parameters, which
require the monitoring time of the order of ms and many a times µsec, have led to the design of
today's electronic instruments and its associated circuitry.
✓ Electronic instruments use semiconductor devices. In electronic devices the only
movement involved is electrons, the response time is extremely small on account of very
small inertia of electrons (negligible mass)
✓ Ex: CRO is capable of following dynamic and transient changes of the order of few nsec.
✓ Electronically controlled power supplies are used to provide stable voltages in the field of
chemical reactions and nuclear instrumentation.
✓ Another advantage of using electronic devices is that very weak signals can be detected by
using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers.
✓ Reliable on account of design and manufacturing.
✓ Data storage and recording is possible.
✓ Electronic signal will be transmitted to remote locations.
✓ Communication is a field which is entirely dependent upon electronic instruments.
✓ Building analog and digital computers.
✓ Electronic instruments have
◼ A higher sensitivity
◼ A faster response
S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

◼ A greater flexibility
◼ Lower weight
◼ Lower power consumption
◼ A higher degree of reliability
1.5 Deflection and Null Type Instruments.
1.5.1 Deflection Type
• The measured quantity produces some physical effect with deflects or produces a
mechanical displacement of the moving system of the instrument. An opposing effect is
the one which tries to oppose the deflection or the mechanical displacement of the
moving system.
• The opposing effect is directly related to the deflection or mechanical displacement
which can be directly observed.
• The balance is achieved when opposing effect equals to cause producing the deflection
or mechanical movement.

Fig: Deflection type Instrument (PMMC Instrument)

Example
In permanent Magnet moving coil (PMMC) ammeter, the deflection of the moving coil is
proportional to current I. The torque Td acting on a moving coil is proportional to current I.
Td=GI
Where G is constant dependent upon flux density, number of turns and area of moving coil. The
opposing effect is produced by a spring whose torque t c is proportional to deflection θ.
Tc= Kθ
Where K is the spring constant. Under balance condition
Tc=Td
GI=Kθ
𝐾
I=(𝐺 ) θ

The value of the measured quantity, I depend upon the material and dimension of the spring.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

1.5.2 Null Type

• Null type instruments attempt to maintain the deflection at zero by suitable application of
an effect opposing the generated by the measured quantity. Therefore, for the operation
of a null type of instrument, the following are required.
• the effect produced by the measured quantity.
• The opposing effect whose value is accurately known.
• A detector which detects the null conditions i.e device which indicates zero deflection
(balance conditions) when the effect produced by the measured quantity is equal to the
effect produced by the opposing quantity.
Example: DC Potentiometer (Null type instruments)

• It is a null type of instrument wherein an unknown emf E x is measured.

• The slide wire of the potentiometer has been calibrated in terms of emf with the help of
a standard emf source.
• Null detector is a current galvanometer whose deflection is proportional to the unbalance
emf i.e., the difference between the emf Eab across portion a b of slide wire and the
unknown emf Ex.
• As soon as the two are equal, there is no current through the galvanometer and it shows
zero deflection thereby indicating null conditions.
Comparison between Deflection and Null type Instruments
Null Type Deflection Type
The accuracy of null type of instrument is The accuracy of deflection type of instrument
higher because the opposing effect is is dependent upon their calibration which
calibrated with the help of standard which depends upon the instrument constants.
have a high degree of accuracy.
The measured quantity is balanced out, this A deflection type of instrument is larger in
means the detector has to cover a small range size, more rugged and less sensitive.
around the balance (null) point and therefore
can be made highly sensitive. Hence the
detector needs to be calibrated.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
 MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

Null type of instrument requires many Suitable for dynamic measurements.

manipulations before null condition are
obtained. Hence not suitable for dynamic
measurements wherein the measured
quantity changes with time.

1.6 Analog and Digital modes of operation

Secondary instruments work in two modes
1. Analog mode, and
2. Digital mode.
Signals that vary in a continuous fashion and take on an infinity of values in any given range are
called analog signals. The devices which produce these signals are called analog devices.
In contrast, "the signals which vary in discrete steps and thus take up only finite different values
in a given range are called digital signals. The devices that produce such signals are called digital
devices.

1.7 Functions of Instruments and Measurement systems

The three main functions are explained below:
1. Indicating function
2. Recording function
3. Controlling function
Indicating function
Instruments and systems use different kinds of methods for supplying information
concerning the variable quantity under measurement. Most of the time this information is obtained
as a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument. In this way the instrument performs a
function which is commonly known as indicating function.
S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

For example, the deflection of pointer of a speedometer indicates the speed of the
automobile at that moment. A pressure gauge is used for indicating the pressure.
Recording function
In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on paper, of the value of the quantity
under measurement against time or against some other variable. Thus, the instrument performs a
recording function. For example, a potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring
temperature records the instantaneous temperatures on a strip chart recorder.

Controlling function
This is one of the most important functions especially in the field of industrial control processes.
In this case, the information is used by the instrument or the system to control the original measured
quantity.
Thus, there are three main groups of instruments. The largest group has the indicating
function. Next in line is the group of instruments which have both indicating and or recording
functions. The last group falls into a special category and performs all the three functions i.e.,
indicating, recording and controlling.
1.8 Applications of Measurement Systems
The way the instruments and measurement systems are used for different applications are as under:
1. Monitoring of processes and operations.
2. Control of processes and operations.
3. Experimental Engineering analysis.

Monitoring of processes and operations.

There are certain applications of measuring instruments that have essentially a monitoring
function. They simply indicate the value or condition of parameter under study and their readings
do not serve any control functions.
For example,
An ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of current or voltage being monitored (measured)
at a particular instant.
Energy meters installed in homes keep track of commodity used so that later on its cost may be
computed to be realized from the user.

Control of Process and operation

A block diagram of a simple control system is shown in Fig.2

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

Figure 2: - Block Diagram of simple control system

Let us assume that the output variable to be controlled is non-electrical and the control action is
through electrical means.
The input is reference which corresponds to the desired value of the output. The input is
compared with the output with the help of a comparator. The output is a non-electrical quantity
and is converted into a corresponding electrical form by a transducer connected in the feedback
loop. In case the input and output differ, there is a resultant error signal. This error signal is
amplified and then fed to an actuator, which produces power to drive the controlled circuitry.

The corrective action goes on till the output is at the same level as the input which corresponds to
the desired output. At this stage, there is no error signal and hence there is no input to the actuator
and the control action stops.

Examples: refrigeration system which employs a thermostatic control. A temperature measuring

device (often a bimetallic element) senses the room temperature, thus providing the information
necessary for proper functioning of the control system.

Experimental Engineering analysis:

Under this section instruments are used for the following
[1] Testing the validity of theoretical predictions.
[2] Formulations of generalized. empirical relationships in cases where no proper theoretical
backing exists
[3] Determination of system parameters, variables and performance indices.
[4] For development in important spheres of study where there is ample scope of study.
[5] Solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
 MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

1.9 Elements of generalized measurement system

Figure 3: Functional elements of an instrument or a measurement system

Figure shown above, represents a possible arrangement of functional elements of an instrument

and includes all the basic functions necessary for a description of any instrument.
• The quantity that the instrument is specifically intended to measure is called Measurand.
• [Primary Sensing Element] The primary sensing element is one which first receives
energy from the measured medium and produces an output depending in some way on the
measured quantity ("measurand ").
• [Variable Conversion Element] The output signal of the primary sensing element is some
physical variable, such as displacement or voltage. For the instrument to perform the
desired function, it may be necessary to convert this variable to another more suitable
variable while preserving the information content of the original signal. An element that
performs such a function is called a variable conversion element.
• [Variable Manipulation Element] An instrument may require a signal represented by
some physical variable be manipulated in some way. By manipulation here we mean
change in numerical value according to some definite rule preserving the physical nature
of the variable.
An electronic amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces an output
signal that is also a voltage but is some constant times the input. An element that performs
such a function is called a variable-manipulation element.
• [Data Transmission Element]
When the functional elements of an instrument are actually physically separated, It
becomes necessary to transmit the data from one to another. An element Performing this
function is called a data -transmission element.
For example, space-crafts are physically separated from the earth where the control
stations guiding their movements are located. Therefore, control signals are sent from these
stations to space- crafts by complicated telemetry systems using radio signals.
• [Data Presentation Element] The display or readout devices which display the required
information about the measurement, forms the data presentation element. In case of data to
be monitored, visual display devices are needed like ammeters and voltmeters. In case of
S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

data to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, T.V equipment, and storage type CRT,
printers, and so on are used.
Example:

Figure 3: Bourdon tube pressure gauge

As an example of a measurement system, consider the simple bourdon tube pressure gauge as
shown in Fig 3. This gauge offers a good example of a measurement system

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of a bourdon tube pressure gauge.

• In this case. the bourdon tube acts as the primary sensing element and a variable conversion
element. It senses the input quantity (pressure in this case). On account of the pressure the closed
end of the bourdon tube is displaced. Thus, the pressure is converted into a small displacement.
• The closed end of the bourdon tube is connected through mechanical linkage to a gearing
arrangement. The gearing arrangement amplifies the small displacement and makes the pointer
to rotate through a large angle. The mechanical linkage thus acts as a data transmission element
while the gearing arrangement acts as a data manipulation element.
• The final data presentation stage consists of the pointer and dial arrangement, which when
calibrated with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of the pressure signal applied to the
bourdon tube.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
 MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

1.10 Input-output configuration of measuring instruments and measurement systems

Fig 5: Generalized Input-Output configuration of measurement systems

Above Figure 5 shows the generalized configuration that brings out the significant input-output
relationships present in all measuring systems.

Input quantities are classified into three types they are:

1. Desired inputs,
2. Interfering inputs,
3. Modifying inputs

Desired inputs: These inputs represent the quantities that the instrument is specifically designed
to measure and respond. The desired input rD produces an output component CD = GDrD with an
input-output relationship using a mathematical operator GD which is defined as a transfer function.
A desired input produces a component of output according to an input-output relation symbolized
by GD. where GD denotes the mathematical operations necessary to obtain the output from the
input.
GD can be any of the following:
GD constant (k) - relating a constant static input to the corresponding static output for a linear
instrument.
GD mathematical function - relating a constant static input to the corresponding static output for a
nonlinear instrument.
GD differential equation - Relating dynamic input and dynamic output
GD statistical distribution - If a description of the output "scatter," or dispersion, for repeated equal
static inputs
Interfering inputs: These inputs represent quantities to which the instrument is unintentionally
sensitive. The instrument or measurement systems are not desired to respond to interfering inputs
but they give an output due to interfering inputs on account of principle of working, design and
many other factors like the environments in which they are placed.
rI is operated upon by a transfer function GI to produce an output in the same manner as a desired
input is operated upon by a transfer function GD to produce an output.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

Modifying inputs: Modifying inputs are the quantities that cause a change in the input-output
relations for the desired and interfering inputs that is, they cause a change in G D and/or G1 The
symbols G MI and GMD represent (in the appropriate form) the specific manner in which rM affects
G1 and GD, respectively.
The block diagram shown in Fig-5 illustrates the above concepts. The circle with a cross in it is a
conventional symbol for a summing device. The two plus signs as shown indicate that the output
of the summing device is the instantaneous algebraic sum of its two inputs.
Example – 1 Consider the mercury manometer used for differential-pressure measurement as
shown in Fig. a. The desired inputs are the pressures p 1 and p2 whose difference causes the output
displacement x, which can be read on the calibrated scale.

p = ( p1 - p2 ) = g x ( ρm – ρf )
Where

(p1 - p2) = difference in pressure to be determined

g = Acceleration due to gravity
x = Displacement indicated

Fig b and c shows the action of two possible interfering inputs.

• In Fig b, the manometer is mounted on some vehicle that is accelerating. A simple analysis shows
that there will be an output x even though the differential pressure might be zero. Thus, if you
S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

are trying to measure pressures under such circumstances, an error will be engendered because
of the interfering acceleration input.

• In Fig c, if the manometer is not properly aligned with the gravity vector, it may give an output
signal x even though no pressure difference exists. here the till angle θ is an interfering input. (It
is also a modifying input.)

• Modifying inputs for the manometer include ambient temperature and gravitational force.

• The density of mercury varies with temperature, which again leads to a change in the
proportionality factor.

• A change in gravitational force resulting from changes in location of the manometer, such as
moving it to another country or putting it aboard a spaceship, leads to a similar modification in
the scale factor. Note that the effects of both the desired and the interfering inputs may be altered
by the modifying inputs.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

1.12 Transducers
A generalized measurement system consists of three major components.

(i) an input device,

(ii) a signal conditioning or processing device, and
(iii) an output device.

The input device receives the measurand or the quantity under measurement and delivers a
proportional or analogous electrical signal to the signal conditioning device. Here the signal is
amplified, attenuated, filtered, modulated, or otherwise modified in format acceptable to the
output device.

The input quantity for most instrumentation systems is a "non-electrical quantity". In order to use
electrical methods and techniques for measurement, manipulation or control, the non-electrical
quantity is generally converted into an electrical form by a device called a "transducer".

Transducer as a device which, when actuated transforms energy from one form to another. A
transducer which convert mechanical force into an electrical signal.

1.13 Classifications of transducers

The transducers can be classified
1. on the basis of transduction form used,
2. as primary and secondary transducers,
3. as passive and active transducers,
4. as analog and digital transducers,

1. Classification based upon Principle of Transduction

The transducers can be classified on the basis of principle of transduction as resistive,

inductive, capacitive etc. depending upon how they convert the input quantity into resistance,
inductance or capacitance respectively. They can be classified as piezoelectric, thermoelectric,
magnetorestrictive, electrokinetic and optical.

2. Primary and Secondary Transducers

• Let us consider the case of a Bourdon's tube as shown in Fig.
• The Bourdon tube acting as, a primary detector senses the pressure and converts the pressure
into a displacement of its free end.
• The displacement of the free end moves the core of a linear variable differential transformer,
(L.V.D.T.) which produces an output voltage which is proportional to the movement of the
core, which is proportional to the displacement of the free end which in turn is
proportional to the pressure. Thus, there are two stages of transduction, firstly the pressure
is converted into a displacement by Bourdon tube then the displacement, is converted into

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

an analogous voltage by L.V.D.T. The Bourdon tube is called a "Primary Transducer" while
the L.V.D.T. is called a "Secondary_ Transducer".

Fig: Measurement of pressure using Bourdon tube an L.V.D.T. (Example of primary and
Secondary transducers).
Let us take another example of measurement of a compressive force with the help of a load cell in
conjunction with strain gauges as shown in Fig.

Fig. Force measurement with load cell and strain gauges

• The load cell is a short column or a strut with resistance wire strain gauges bonded to
it. The measurand, in this case, is a force and is applied to the column thereby producing
strain.
• The force is first detected by the column and is converted into strain which is a mechanical
displacement. The higher the force, the higher is the strain and thus the input signal (force) is
converted into an analogous, output (strain). This strain changes the resistance of the strain
gauges.
• Thus, we have an output which is a change in the value of resistance i.e., electrical in form.
Hence, in this case, • it takes two processes to convert an input into an analogous output.
• The first process involves conversion of force into mechanical displacement which is
done by the column, while the second process involves conversion of mechanical
displacement into change of resistance which is done by strain gauges.
• Thus, we see that the force is detected by the column in the first stage and hence it is
called a Primary Transducer. The output signal from the primary transducer is

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

converted into a usable output by the strain gauges and therefore they are known as
Secondary Transducers.

3. Passive and Active Transducers

• Passive Transducers. Passive transducers derive the power required for transduction from
an auxiliary power source. They are also known as "externally powered transducers". Typical
examples of passive transducers are resistive, inductive and capacitive transducers.
• A typical example of a passive transducer is a “POT' which is used for measurement of
displacement. A “POT' is a resistive transducer powered by a source voltage ei as shown in
Fig. This 'POT' is used for measurement of linear displacement x i.

Fig: Linear Potentiometer (POT), a Passive Transducer

Suppose L is the total length of potentiometer whose total resistance Ri. The input
displacement is xi.

In the absence of external power, the transducer cannot work and it hence is called a
passive transducer.
Active Transducers
• Active transducers are those which do not require an auxiliary power source to produce
their output. They are also known as self-generating type since they develop their own
voltage or current output.
• The energy required for production of output signal is obtained from the physical quantity
being measured.
• Velocity, temperature, light intensity and force can be transduced with the help of active
transducers.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

• These transducers include tachogenerators, thermo couples, photovoltaic cells and

piezoelectric crystals.
• Consider the case of a piezoelectric crystal used for measurement of acceleration as shown
in Fig. The crystal is sandwiched between two metallic electrodes, and the entire sandwich
is fastened to a base which may be the floor of a rocket. A fixed mass is placed on the top
of the sandwich.

Fig. Piezo-electric crystal measuring acceleration — an active transducer.

• The property of the piezo-electric crystals is that when a force is applied to them, they
produce an output voltage. The mass exerts a certain force on account of acceleration on
the crystal due to which a voltage is generated.
• The acceleration is applied to the base, due to which the mass produces a force. The mass
being fixed, the force is proportional to acceleration. The voltage output is
proportional force and hence is proportional to acceleration (the mass being fixed).
• It should be noted from above that this transducer called "accelerometer" which converts
acceleration into electrical voltage does not need any auxiliary power source to convert a
physical phenomenon (acceleration in this case) to an electrical output (voltage in this
case) and therefore is an active transducer.
4. Analog and Digital Transducers
The transducers can be classified on the basis of the output which may be a continuous
function of time or the output may be in discrete steps.

1. Analog Transducers. These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output
which is a continuous function of time Thus a strain gauge, an L.V.D.T., a thermocouple or a
thermistor may be called as "Analog Transducers" as they give an output which is a continuous
function of time.
2. Digital Transducers. These transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output
which is in the form of pulses.
• As the binary system uses only two symbols 0 and 1 it can be easily represented by
opaque and transparent areas on a glass scale or non-conducting and conducting areas
on a metal scale.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT
MEASUREMENT AND TRANSDUCERS 21EI34

• A scale constructed to show the linear position on a movable object and having five digits
is shown in Fig. The complete binary number denoting position is obtained by scanning
the pattern across the scale at a stationary index mark.

Fig: 5-digit scale for digital indication 0f linear position of a movable object.

• Glass scales can be read optically by means of a light source, an optical system and photocells.
Metal scales are scanned by brushes making electrical contact with individual tracks.
• The. resolution depends upon the digits comprising the binary number and is 1/2n of full
scale where n is the number of digits.

S J SAVITA
ASST PROF EIE DEPT RNSIT