Electronic Instrumentation Unit-I

Qualities of Measurement: Specifications of instruments, their static and

dynamic characteristics, Error (Gross error, systematic error, absolute error
and relative error) and uncertainty analysis. Statistical analysis of data and
curve fitting.
Basic Measurement Instruments: PMMC instrument, galvanometer, DC
Credits Theory - 04
measurement - ammeter, voltmeter, ohm meter, AC measurement, Digital
voltmeter systems (integrating and non-integrating types), digital
multimeters, digital frequency meter system (different modes and universal
counter).
Connectors and Probes: low capacitance probes, high voltage probes,
current probes, identifying electronic connectors – audio and video,
RF/Coaxial, USB etc.

Practice Assignment 1 : Errors Submit on…..

Practice Assignment 2 : Meters Submit on…..

Practice Assignment 3 : Frequency Meters ..

W.D. Cooper and A. D. Helfrick,

Joseph J Carr,
Join the discussion Group : Moodle or MS TEams
 Qualities of Measurement:

Specifications of instruments,
Static and Dynamic characteristics,
Error (Gross error, systematic error,
absolute error and relative error)
and uncertainty analysis.
Statistical analysis of data and curve fitting.

Source: Book by Kalsi

Electronic Instrumentation – Historic Context
■ The vast majority of early instruments were based on mechanical principles and were
intended for the measurement of mechanical quantities (length and mass) and also
time.
■ Electronic components emerged in the 20th century and their potential in
instrumentation was quickly recognised.
■ Miniaturisation of measuring instruments due to developments in electronics is
pursued for achieving improved overall system performance.
Electronic Instrumentation
■ Electronic Instrumentation is a branch of science that deals with the Design, Realisation
and Use of electronic systems for the measurement of electrical and non-electrical
quantities.
■ It provides the knowledge that is needed to select the commercially available
instruments if available with sufficient performance (instrument specifications) to do the
job.
■ It provides the required knowledge at the sub-system and component levels to design
and realise customised instruments to meet the requirements of demanding
applications.
Specifications of the Instrument

Source Instrument Target

■ The source is an object (i.e. a phenomenon, process or system of physical, chemical or

physiological nature) and the value of one or more quantities of the object is to be
determined.
■ The target defines the motive for performing the measurement. It can be a human
observer or an actuator that is part of a measurement system.
Specifications of the Instrument
Three main parts of the measurement and control system can be distinguished:
■ Data acquisition
■ Data processing and
■ Data distribution
Data Acquisition : information is obtained (= acquired) on the measurand and
transferred into a ‘data’. The signals at the data acquisition, data processing
and data distribution sub-systems, are necessarily electrical and
analog/digital.
Data processing involves manipulating the input data and forwarding the
result to the data distribution sub-system.
The information of interest at the source is generally classified as:
• Optical (radiant),
• Thermal,
• Mechanical,
Transferring information from one signal domain into
• Magnetic,
another requires a transducer.
• Chemical and
• Electrical.
Elements of an Electronic Measurement System

Proper coupling of the signal from the sensor output into the input of the
Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) requires signal conditioning. Similarly, the
data distribution unit usually includes signal conditioning between the
Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) and an actuator.
 Advantages of Electronic Measurement
■ Most of the quantities to be measured, can be converted by transducers into the
electrical or electronic signals. An electrical or electronic signal can be amplified,
filtered, multiplexed, sampled and measured.
■ The measurement can easily be obtained in or converted into digital form for
automatic analysis and recording.
■ The measured signals can be transmitted over long distances with the help of cables
or radio links, without any or minimal loss of information.
■ Many measurements can be carried either simultaneously or in rapid succession.
■ Electronic circuits can detect and amplify very weak signals and can measure the
events of very short duration as well.
■ Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a higher degree of reliability are the
important features of electronic instruments and measurements. But, for any
measurement, a well defined set of standards and calibration units is essential.
Performance Characteristics of Instruments
The characteristics of the instruments can be divided into two distinct categories:
■ Static characteristics:
– The steady state relationship between input and output of an instrument.
Measurement of quantities that are constant or vary quite slowly with respect to
time.
■ Dynamic characteristics: They describe the ways in which an instrument or
measurement system responds to sudden changes to the input.
Static Characteristics: Important Parameters

■ Accuracy and Precision

■ Repeatability/Reproducibility
■ Tolerance
■ Range or span
■ Linearity
■ Sensitivity of measurement
■ Threshold
■ Resolution
■ Sensitivity to disturbance
■ Hysteresis effects
■ Dead space
Accuracy and Precision
■ Accuracy: The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of
the instrument is to the correct value. Measurement error is the amount of inaccuracy.
■ Precision: Measurements that are close to each other are precise (without reference to
true value).
Measurements can be:
Repeatability/Reproducibility
■ Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is
applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same measurement
conditions, same instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of use
maintained throughout.
■ Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when
there are changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument,
location, conditions of use and time of measurement.
Both terms thus describe the spread of output readings for the same input. This spread is
referred to as repeatability if the measurement conditions are constant and as
reproducibility if the measurement conditions vary.
Tolerance
■ Tolerance is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be
expected in some value. It refers to the total allowable error. This is typically
represented as a +/- value off of a nominal specification.
Example: Electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of
perhaps 5%. One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal
value 1000W and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere
between 950W and 1050 W.
Range or Span

■ The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum

values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to measure.
Example:
■ 0 - 20 V range of a multimeter
■ 0 - 1V range of an oscilloscope.
Linearity
■ It is highly desirable that the measurement system has a linear relationship
between input and output means that the change in output is proportional
to the change in the value of the measurand.
■ Deviation from true linearity is called linearity error.
Sensitivity of Measurement
Sensitivity is the ratio of change in magnitude of the output to the change in magnitude of
the measurand.
Sensitivity = Δ(output) / Δ(input)
Example:
■ If the measured output is increased by 100 mV for a temperature change of 4°C, the the
sensitivity is
■ S = ΔV/ΔT = 100 mV/4°C = 25 mV/°C

In other words, it describes the transfer ratio of the output to the input.
 Threshold
■ If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the input will have to reach a
certain minimum level before the change in the instrument output reading is of a large
enough magnitude to be detectable. This minimum level of input is known as the threshold
of the instrument.
Resolution
Resolution is the lower limit on the magnitude of the change in the input measured quantity
that produces an observable change in the instrument output.
Example
■ Using a car speedometer as an example again, this has subdivisions of typically 20 km/h.
This means that when the needle is between the scale markings, we cannot estimate
speed more accurately than to the nearest 5 km/h. This figure of 5 km/h thus represents
the resolution of the instrument.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
■ As variations occur in the ambient temperature etc., certain static instrument
characteristics change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude
of this change. Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways,
known as zero drift and sensitivity drift.
■ Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term, bias. Zero drift or bias describes
the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient
conditions.
■ Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which an
instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change.
Hysteresis Effects
It is the change of output with some value of input with a different history of input
variation.
A hysteresis is observed when the
input/output characteristics for an
instrument are different when
input increases than when the
input decreases. It results when
some of the energy applied to
increase inputs is not recovered
when the input is decreased.
The phenomenon, which takes
place during magnetizing and
demagnetizing a magnetic
material, is called hysteresis.
 Dead Space (Dead Time)
■ Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which there is no change
in output value.

In other words, Dead

Time can be defined as
the time required by an
instrument or the
measurement system to
respond to a change in
the measurand.
Dynamic Characteristics
■ It describes the ways in which an instrument or measurement system responds to
sudden changes to the input.
In general, the dynamic response of the measurement system is expressed in the form of
a differential equation.
■ For any dynamic system, the order of the differential equation which describes the
system is called the Order of the System.
– Zero order instrument
– First order instrument
– Second order instrument
Zero-order System: It has an ideal
dynamic performance, because the
output is proportional to the input for all
frequencies and there is no amplitude
or phase distortion.
A linear potentiometer is an example of
a zero-order element.
First-order System: A first-order instrument or system is
characterized by a linear differential equation. The temperature
transducer is an example of first-order measuring devices,
since this is characterized by a single parameter, i.e., time
constant, T.
The differential
equation for the
first-order system
is given by
x(t)= y + T⋅dy/dx
where, x = Input
x(t) = Time function of
the input
y = Output.
Second-order System: This type of system is characterized by
the second-order differential equation. The example of the
second-order system is the mass-spring system of the
measurement of the force. The second-order instrument or
system is defined by the equation
Other Dynamic Characteristics
(i) Respond Time, (ii) Fidelity,
(iii) Measuring lag, and (iv) Dynamic error.
(i) Respond Time: It is an important parameter to describe the dynamic response of an
instrument. It characterizes the instrument to a step change in the measurand (input). It
includes rise time, delay time and time constant.
(ii) Fidelity: It is defined as the degree of the measurement system. It indicates changes in
the measurand without any dynamic error.
(iii) Measuring Lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system
to changes in the measurand.
(iv) Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity under
measurement changing with time and the measured value of the quantity. It also referred to
as Measurement error.
Measurement Errors
The error is defined earlier as the difference between
the true value of the variable and the value indicated by
the instrument.
• Virtually all measurements have errors
– i.e. Measured Value = ‘True’ Value ± Error

Measurement ≈ 26.13 cm
The last digit is an estimate.
measurement = best estimate ± uncertainty (units)
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Types of Errors
■ Errors may come from different sources and are usually classified under three main
headings:
■ Gross Errors - Largely human errors, such as misreading of instruments, incorrect
adjustment, improper application of instruments, and computational mistakes.
■ Systematic Errors - Shortcomings of the instruments, such as defective or worn parts,
and effects of the environment on the equipment or the user
■ Random Errors - Those due to causes that cannot be directly established because of
random variations in the parameter or the system of measurement.
Gross Errors
■ Mainly human mistakes in reading or using instruments and in recording and calculating
measurement results.
■ Example: improper use of an instrument – a well-calibrated voltmeter may give a
misleading reading when connected across two points in a high- resistance circuit. The
same voltmeter, when connected in a low-resistance circuit, may give a more
dependable reading. These examples illustrate that the voltmeter has a “loading
effect” on the circuit, altering the original situation by the measurement process.
■ Other general reasons –
– improper reading of an instrument,
– recording the result differently from the actual reading taken
– adjusting the instrument incorrectly.
Minimising Gross Errors
■ Gross Errors cannot be treated mathematically.
■ They can be avoided only by taking care in reading and recording the measurement data.
Good practice requires making more than one reading of the same quantity, preferably
by a different observer. Never place complete dependence on one reading but take at
least three separate readings, preferably under conditions in which instruments are
switched off-on.
Systematic Errors
Mainly due to the shortcomings of the instrument and the characteristics of the material
used in the instrument, ageing effects, environmental effects, etc. Systematic error is also
known as a constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument.

This type of errors is usually divided into three different categories:

1. instrumental errors, defined as shortcomings of the instrument;
2. environmental errors, due to external conditions affecting the measurement.
3. Observational Errors
Minimising Systematic Errors
Instrumental (systematic) errors may be avoided by:
1. selecting a suitable instrument for a particular measurement application;
2. applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental
error;
3. calibrating the instrument against a standard.
Examples: in the d’Arsonval movement, friction in bearings, Irregular spring tension,
stretching of the spring, or reduction in tension due to improper handling or overloading of
the instrument, calibration errors, causing the instrument to read high or low along its
entire scale.
Random Errors
■ Even after taking care of Gross errors and Systematic errors, some errors may still appear
during measurements. The causes of such errors are unknown and hence, the errors are
called random errors. These errors cannot be determined in the ordinary process of
taking the measurements.
■ Minimisation: This variation cannot be corrected by any method of calibration or other
known method of control and it cannot be explained without minute investigation. The
only way to offset these errors is by increasing the number of readings and using
statistical methods to obtain the best approximation of the true value.
Absolute and relative errors:
■ When the error is specified in terms of an absolute quantity and not as a percentage,
then it is called an absolute error.
Thus the voltage of 10 ± 0.5 V indicated ± 0.5 V as an absolute error.
■ When the error is expressed as a percentage or as a fraction of the total quantity to be
measured, then it is called relative error.
■
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Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
■ The manufacturers specify the accuracy of the instruments within a
certain percentage of full scale reading. The components like the resistor,
inductor, capacitor are guaranteed to be within a certain percentage of
the rated value. This percentage indicates the deviations from the nominal
or specified value of the particular quantity. These deviations from the
specified value are called Limiting Errors. These are also called Guarantee
Errors.
■ Thus the actual value with the limiting error can be expressed
mathematically as,
Relative limiting error:
■ This is also called fractional error. It is the ratio of the error to the
specified magnitude of a quantity.
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Example: A 0-150-V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 per cent full-
scale reading. The voltage measured by this instrument is 83 V. Calculate
the limiting error in per cent.
■ The magnitude of the limiting error is
0.01 × 150V = 1.5V
The percentage error at a meter indication of 83 V is
■ 1.5/83 × 100 per cent = 1.81%
■ It is important to note that a meter is guaranteed to have an accuracy of
better than 1 per cent of the full-scale reading, but when the meter reads
83 V, the limiting error increases to 1.81 per cent. Correspondingly, when
a smaller voltage is measured, the limiting error will increase further. If the
meter reads 60 V, the per cent limiting error is 1.5/60 × 100 = 2.5 per
cent; if the meter reads 30 V, the limiting error is 1.5/30 × 100 = 5 per
cent. The increase in per cent limiting error, as smaller voltages are
measured, occurs because the magnitude of the limiting error is a fixed
quantity based on the full-scale reading of the meter. This example shows
the importance of taking measurements as close to full scale as possible.
Statistical Analysis
■ A statistical analysis allows an analytical determination of the uncertainty of the final
test result.
■ To make statistical methods and interpretations meaningful, a large number of
measurements is usually required.
■ Also, systematic errors should be small compared with residual or random errors,
because statistical treatment of data cannot remove a fixed bias contained in all the
measurements.
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Arithmetic Mean
The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of
the number of readings taken. The best approximation will be made when
the number of readings of the same quantity is very large. The arithmetic
mean is given by the following expression:

Example: A set of independent voltage measurements taken by four observers was recorded as
117.02 V, 117.11 V, 117.08 V, and 117.03 V. Calculate the average voltage.
Deviation from the Mean
■ Deviation is the departure of a
given reading from the arithmetic
mean of the group of readings. If
the deviation of the first reading,
x1, is called d1, and that of the
second reading, x2, is called d2,
and so on, then the deviations
from the mean can be expressed
as
■ d1 =x1−x d2 =x2−x dn =xn−x
■ Note that the deviation from the
mean may have a positive or a
negative value and that the
algebraic sum of all the deviations
must be zero.
 Example: A set of independent current measurements was taken by six
observers and recorded as 12.8 mA, 12.2 mA, 12.5 mA, 13.1 mA, 12.9 mA,
and 12.4 mA. Calculate
1. the arithmetic mean,
2. the deviations from the mean.

Note that the algebraic sum of all the deviations equals zero.
 Average Deviation
■ The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instruments
used in making the measurements. Highly precise instruments will yield a
low average deviation between readings. By definition, average deviation
is the sum of the absolute values of the deviation divided by the number
of readings. The absolute value of the deviation is the value without
respect to sign. Average deviation may be expressed as

Average deviation for previous example:

Standard Deviation
■ In statistical analysis of random errors, the root-mean-square deviation or
standard deviation is a very valuable aid. By definition, the standard
deviation σ of an infinite number of data is the square root of the sum of all
the individual deviations squared, divided by the number of readings.
Expressed mathematically:

In practice, of course, the possible number of observations is finite. The

standard deviation of a finite number of data is given by
This data shows that 68% of heights were
75 inches plus or minus 9.3 inches (1
standard deviation away from the mean),
95% of heights were 75’’ plus or minus
18.6’’ (2 standard deviations away from
the mean), and 99.7% of heights were 75’’
plus or minus 27.9’’ (3 standard
deviations away from the mean).

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This data shows that 68% of heights were 75 inches plus or minus 9.3 inches
(1 standard deviation away from the mean), 95% of heights were 75’’ plus or
minus 18.6’’ (2 standard deviations away from the mean), and 99.7% of
heights were 75’’ plus or minus 27.9’’ (3 standard deviations away from the
mean).

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Mean Square Deviation
■ Another expression for essentially the same quantity is the variance or mean square
deviation, which is
■ the same as the standard deviation except that the square root is not extracted.
Therefore
variance (V ) = mean square deviation = σ2
■ The variance is a convenient quantity to use in many computations because variances
are additive. The standard deviation, however, has the advantage of being of the same
units as the variable, making it easy to compare magnitudes. Most scientific results are
now stated in terms of standard deviation.
Curve Fitting
 Basic Measurement Instruments:
PMMC instrument, Galvanometer,
DC measurement - ammeter, voltmeter, ohm meter,
AC measurement,
Digital voltmeter systems (integrating and non-
integrating types),
Digital Multimeters,
Digital Frequency Meter System
(different modes and universal counter). Valued Inputs from –
• Dr. Amit Pundir
• Dr. Geetika Jain Saxena
• Dr Vandana Kumari
Source: Book by Kalsi
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Galvanometer

■ Galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be sensitive to

extremely small current levels.
■ The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument with the type of
center-zero scale, therefore the pointer can be deflected to either right or
left of the zero position.
■ The current sensitivity is stated in µA/mm
■ Galvanometers are often used to detect zero current or voltage in a circuit
rather than to measure the actual level of current or voltage. In this
situation, the instrument is referred as a null detector.

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Loading Effect

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■ in third case loading effect is not prominent as the voltmeter resistance is much
higher than the circuit resistance but in first case loading effect is dominating as the
voltmeter resistance is comparable to circuit resistance.
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Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
● Used to measure the ac and dc voltages and displays the result in digital form.
Types:
● Ramp type DVM
● Integrating type DVM
● Potentiometric type DVM
● Successive approximation type DVM
● Continuous balance type DVM
 Imp features
■ Number of digits
■ Number of measurements
■ Accuracy
■ Speed of reading
■ Digital output of various types

■ DVM available
■ Input range – 1V to 1000 V
■ Accuracy : ±0.005% or better
■ Resolution : 1 part in million (1μm reading possible on 1V range)
■ Input resistance : 10MΩ, input capacitance: 40pF
Advantages of DVM:

1. Errors on account of parallax and approximations are entirely eliminated

2. Operating speed is increased
3. Data can be fed to memory devices for storage and future computation.
4. Size reduced after the advent of ICs and easily portable.
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 Ramp Technique
■ Measures the time that a linear ramp takes to change the input level to ground level or vice-versa.
■ The time period is measured with an electronic time-interval counter. The count is displayed as number
of digits.
■ The ramp may be +ve or -ve

Operation: A ramp is initiated

Counter is reset to 0.
A multivibrator gives a pulse which
initiates the ramp generator.
The ramp is continuously compared with
the voltage to be measured.
At the first incidence when the the two
voltages are equal, the circuit opens a
gate.
The ramp continues till comparator
senses that the ramp has reached zero
value.
At this point comparator generates stop
pulse and the gate is closed.
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Ramp Technique
DVM – Ramp Type
Merits:
● low cost
● simple, easy to design
● long distance transmission of output pulse is possible

Demerits:
● accuracy of output greatly depends on linearity of the ramp.(since only one ramp
is used)
● input filter are needed for filtering noise from input signal.
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Dual Slope Integrating type Voltage to time Conversion
■ Both +ve and –ve ramps are used.
■ A start pulse resets the counter.
■ F/F o/p to logic level 0.
■ Si is closed and Sr is open.
■ The capacitor begins to charge.
■ As soon as integrator voltage exceeds zero,
gate opens.
■ The counter is made to run for a time ‘t1’ or to
max value of counter ‘9999’
■ On the next pulse all digits go to ‘0000’
■ The counter activates the F/F level ‘1’.
■ This activates the ‘ei’ to disconnect and ‘–er’ to
connect to the integrator.
■ Now integrator o/p have a –ve slope which is
constant, i.e. o/p decreases linearly to 0 volts.
■ The discharge time is proportional to input
voltage.
■ When –ve slope reaches zero, the comparator
closes the gate.
During Charging

During Discharging If the oscillator period equals T and the digital

counter indicates n1 and n2 counts during charging
and discharging resp.

Since n1 and er are constant. i.e., n1/er = K

Integrating type DVM
■ A constant i/p voltage is integrated
and the slope of the o/p ramp is
proportional to the input voltage.
■ When the o/p reaches a reference
value ‘er’, it is discharged to 0 and
another cycle begins.
■ The frequency of the o/p is
proportional to i/p voltage.

Now er and t2 are constants

K2 = er t2

■ The o/p frequency is proportional to

i/p voltage.
 Analog to Digital Conversion
(Staircase Ramp)
■ The i/p is compared with an internally
generated voltage which is increased
in steps starting from zero.
■ Operation: Counter is reset to 0 at
time t1.
■ o/p of DAC at t1 is also 0.
■ If Vi is ≠ 0, the i/p comparator opens
the gate so that clock pulses are fed
to the counter.
■ The process continues until the
staircase voltage is equal or slightly
larger greater than the i/p Vi.
 Successive Approximation

Advantages Disadvantages

■ Capable of high speed and ■ Higher resolution successive

reliable approximation ADC’s will be
slower
■ Medium accuracy compared
to other ADC types
■ Good tradeoff between
speed and cost
 Successive Approximations
■ This DVM works on the principle of ‘weighing of an object’
■ Operation: Start pulse clears Successive Approximation Register (SAR) (00000000).
■ Vo of DAC is also 0
■ If Vi > Vo, the comparator o/p is +ve.
■ During 1st pulse, the control circuit sets the D7 to 1, and Vo jumps to half of Vref.
■ The SAR is now 10000000.
■ Again Vi is compared with Vo
■ If Vi < Vo D7 resets
■ If Vi > Vo D7 remains set.
The ring counter than
advances one count,
shifting 1 in the second
MSB and the reading
becomes 11000000.
■ This causes the DAC to
increase its reference o/p
by one increment to ¼ V
i.e., (½ V + ¼ V).
■ Again it is compared with
unknown voltage.
Successive Approximation Example

■ 10 bit resolution or
0.0009765625V of Vref
■ Vin= .6 volts
■ Vref=1volts
■ Find the digital value of Vin
Successive Approximation
■ MSB (bit 9)
– Divided Vref by 2
– Compare Vref /2 with Vin
– If Vin is greater than Vref /2 , turn MSB on (1)
– If Vin is less than Vref /2 , turn MSB off (0)
– Vin =0.6V and V=0.5
– Since Vin>V, MSB = 1 (on)
Successive Approximation
■ Next Calculate MSB-1 (bit 8)
– Compare Vin=0.6 V to V=Vref/2 + Vref/4= 0.5+0.25 =0.75V
– Since 0.6<0.75, MSB is turned off
■ Calculate MSB-2 (bit 7)
– Go back to the last voltage that caused it to be turned on (Bit 9) and add
it to Vref/8, and compare with Vin
– Compare Vin with (0.5+Vref/8)=0.625
– Since 0.6<0.625, MSB is turned off
 Successive Approximation
■ Calculate the state of MSB-3 (bit 6)
– Go to the last bit that caused it to be turned on (In this case MSB-1) and add it
to Vref/16, and compare it to Vin
– Compare Vin to V= 0.5 + Vref/16= 0.5625
– Since 0.6>0.5625, MSB-3=1 (turned on)
Successive Approximation

■ This process continues for all the remaining bits.

 Requirement of Sample and Hold
circuit in input

■ With input voltages greater than dc,

the input level changes during
digitisation and decisions made
during conversions are not
consistent. To avoid this error, a
sample and hold circuit is used in the
input , directly following the input
attenuator and amplifier.
■ It is basically an Opamp that charges
the capacitor during the sample mode
and retains the charge during hold
mode.
Sample-And-Hold Circuit
S/H

❑ Analog Input (AI) is sampled when the switch is closed and

its value is held on the capacitor where it becomes the
Analog Output (AO)
Digital Multimeters

■ High Accuracy
■ High input impedance
■ Smaller in size
■ Unambigious reading
■ Good compatibility (interfacing) with external devices
DMM
■ The basic circuit is a dc voltmeter.
■ Current is converted to voltage by passing it through a precision low shunt resistance
while alternating current is converted into dc by rectifier and filters.
■ For resistance measurement, the meter includes a precision low current source that is
applied across the unknown resistance; again this gives a dc voltage which is digitised
and readout as ohms.
 DMM
■ A basic DMM is made up of several A/D converters, circuitry for counting and an
attenuation circuit.
 DMM
■ The current to be measured is applied to the summing junction (Σi) at the input of the
Opamp. Since the current at the input of the amplifier is close to zero because of the very
high input impedance of the amplifier, the current IR is very nearly equal to Ii, the current
IR causes a voltage drop which is proportional to the current, to be developed across the
resistors. This voltage drop is the input to the A/D converter, which provides a reading
that is proportional to the unknown current.
■ Resistance is measured by passing a known current, from a constant current source,
through an unknown resistance. The voltage drop across the resistance is applied to A/D
converter, thereby producing an indication of the value of the unknown resistance.
Digital Frequency Meter

Components:
Decade Counting Assembly
Signal gate
Time base
 Frequency measurement
Unknown frequency is fed to the Schmitt trigger
Initially F/F-1 is at logic 1 ; STOP gate is enabled ; pulse from time base passes through STOP gate to
set S input of F/F-2 to 1. the resulting o/p of Ybar of F/F-2 is applied to B of main gate and no pulse
from unknown signal can pass through main gate.

To start the operation ‘read pulse ‘

is applied. This resets all the
counters. START gate is enabled.
When the next pulse from time
base arrives, passes through F/F-2
and change the state of main gate.
Now pulses from the unknown
signal pass through main gate.
This pulse is also used to enable
STOP gate and unable START
gate.
The next pulse from Time base
passes through STOP gate and
unables the main gate.
Digital frequency Counter
Time Base Selector
 Measurement of Time (period)
At low frequency it is better to measure period rather than measuring frequency.
Gating signal comes from unknown signal. The number of pulses during one period of unknown signal
is measured.
 Single and multiple period measurement
The accuracy of period measurement and hence frequency can be greatly increased by using
multiple average period mode. The main gate is now enabled for more than one period. This is
obtained by passing the unknown through one or more decade divider assemblies.
 Ratio and multiple ratio
Used for determining ratio of two signals.
A low frequency is used as gating signal and high frequency is the counted signal.
 Connectors and
Probes:
Low capacitance probes,
High voltage probes,
Current probes,
Identifying electronic connectors –
Audio and Video,
RF/Coaxial, USB etc.
Valued Inputs from –
• Dr. Amit Pundir
• Dr. Geetika Jain Saxena
• Dr Vandana Kumari
• Dr. Sangeeta Yadav
Source: Book by Kalsi
Thanks ☺

09-05-2020 Dr. Amit Pundir, University of Delhi 144