Electromechanical Instruments

Part-I
GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND
ITS FUNCTIONAL ELEEMNTS
The generalized measurement system is
presented as under:
Various elements are described as under:
• Sensor: The element sensitive to measurand. It senses
the condition, state or value of the process variable by
extracting a small part of energy from the measurand.
• Transducer: It converts the signal from one physical form
to another without changing information content.
• Manipulation: It operates on the signal according to
some mathematical rule without changing the physical
nature of the variable.
• Data Transmission Medium: It transmit data from
remote measurement system to Data Presentation
location. e.g., copper, wireless, or optical fiber cable.
• Data Presentation: It provides a display record or
indication of the output.
Stages of the General Measurement System:
• Stage-1: It senses desired input. e.g., contacts,
resistance, capacitance, inductance, piezoelectric
crystal and polymers, thermocouple, semiconductor
junction, etc.
• Stage-2: It modifies transduced signal into form
usable by final stage. It usually increases amplitude
and/or power. Also selectively filter unwanted
components or convert signal into pulsed form. e.g.,
amplifying or attenuating systems, bridges, filters,
telemetering systems, various special purpose ICs.
• Stage-3: It provides an indication or recording in
form that can be evaluated by an unaided human
sense or by a controller. e.g.:
– Indicator Displace Type: Moving pointer and Scale, Moving
Scale and index, light Beam and Scale, Electron Beam and
Scope (CRO), Liquid Column.
– Digital Types: Direct alphanumeric readout.
– Recorder: Digital Printing, inked pen and chart, direct
photography, magnetic recording (HD)
– Processor and Computer: Various types of computing
systems either special purpose or general purpose.
– Controllers: All types
 APPLICATION OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
• The instruments and measurement systems are
employed for the following applications:
– Monitoring of Process and operation: Simply indicate the
value or condition of parameter under study. e.g., water
and electric energy meter, ammeter and voltmeter used
for indication of current or voltage at particular instant.
– Control of process and operation: Typical refrigerator or
Air-conditioning system.
– Experimental Engineering Analysis: To determine system
parameters, variable and performance indices, test validity
of theoretical predications.
 STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARCTERISITICS OF
INSTRUMENTS
• Static Characteristics: The quantities to be measured
are constant or vary slowly with time.
• Dynamic Characteristics: Based on dynamic relations
(involving rapidly varying quantities).
Definitions Relating to Measuring Instruments:
1. True or actual value: The actual magnitude of a signal
input to measuring system which can only be approached
and never evaluated.
2. Indicated value: It is the magnitude of a variable indicated
by measuring instrument.
3. Correction: The revision applied to the critical value so that the
final result obtained improves the worth of the result.
4. Overall error: It is the difference of the scale reading and
actual/true value.
5. Range: The largest and the smallest reading of the instrument.
6. Span: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower
range values of the instrument.
7. Sensitivity: The ratio of magnitude of output signal to the input
signal or response of measuring system to the quantity being
measured.
8. Scale sensitivity: The ratio of a change in scale reading to the
corresponding change in pointer deflection.
9. Scale readability: The closeness with which the scale can be
read (term used for analog instruments only)
10. Repeatability: the variation of scale reading OR closeness
with which a given input can be measured over and over
again.
11. Accuracy: The degree of correctness with which a
measuring means yield the “true value” with reference to
accepted engineering standards.
12. Uncertainty: The range of error, i.e., the region in which
one guesses the error to be.
13. Drift: The undesirable gradual departure of the
instrument output over a period of time that is unrelated to
changes in input, operating conditions or load. The drift may
be caused by: High mechanical stress, Wear and tear,
Mechanical Vibration, Temperature change, stray electric or
magnetic fields, and thermal e.m.fs.
14. Linearity: The ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically. It is simply a measure of
maximum deviation of any of the calibration points from the
straight line.
15. Non-linearity: departure from the straight line.
16. Threshold: The minimum value below which no output
change can be detected when the input of an instrument is
increased gradually from zero. (analog instruments)
In digital instruments it is the input signal necessary to cause
one least significant digit of the output reading to change.
17. Resolution: When the input is slowly increased from
some arbitrary (non-zero) value, it is observed that the
output does not change at all until a certain increment is
exceeded; this increment is called resolution.
18. Dead zone: The largest change of input quantity for
which no output of the instrument, which may be caused by
friction.
19. Dead time: Time required by a measurement system to
begin to respond to change in the measurand.
20. Speed of response: The quickness of an instrument to
read the measurand variable.
21. Reproducibility: The degree of closeness with which the
same value of a variable may be measured at different times.
22. Tolerance: It is the range of inaccuracy which can be
tolerated in measurement.
23. Backlash: The maximum distance or angle through which
any part of a mechanical system may be moved in one
direction without applying appreciable force or motion to
the next part in a mechanical system.
24. Stiction (static friction): The force or torque that is
necessary just to initiate motion from rest.
25. Noise: An extraneous disturbance generated in a
measuring system which conveys no meaningful information
w.r.t. desired signal.
 Dynamic Characteristics of a Measurement
System:
The dynamic characteristics of a measurement system are:
• Speed of response: defined earlier and is desirable ch’s.
• Measuring Lag: Retardation or delay in the response of a
measurement system to change in measured quantity. It is
caused by capacitance, inertia, or resistance. It is an
undesirable ch’s.
• Fidelity: The degree to which a measurement system
indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error. It is desirable ch’s.
• Dynamic Error: The difference between the true value of the
quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the
measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is
undesirable ch,s.
 Sources of Errors
Beside the errors due to physical and mechanical
nature and the errors result from the faulty
calibration of a measuring system, the errors
arise from the following sources also:
1. Noise
2. Response time
3. Design limitations: Certain unavoidable factors such as
friction and resolving power lead to uncertainty of
measurement.
4. Energy exchanged by the interaction: Loading effect
5. Transmission: During the transmission of information from
the primary sensing element to the indicator, the signal may
be attenuated due to any of the reasons:
- It may suffer loss through leakage
- It may be absorbed/consumed in the communication
channel
- It may be distorted by resonance, attenuation or delayed
6. Deterioration of measuring system: It results from:
- Change in resistance
- Alteration of thermocouple characteristics
7. Ambient influence on measuring system.
8. Errors of observation and interpretation.