Mie Introduction

MEASUREMENTS and INSTRUMENTATION
C Kawerawera 0999220755 / 0888608859
7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 1

MECHANICAL SENSORS
Mechanical sensors are used to measure variables such as

position, velocity, acceleration, force, pressure, levels (such
as a liquid in a tank), and flow, etc
The Sensors Used in a Car

Oxygen Sensors. Oxygen sensors measure the proportion of
oxygen in the exhaust gases coming from the engine. ...
Engine Speed Sensor. ...
Mass Air Flow Sensor (MAF) ...
Fuel and Temperature Sensor. ...
Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP) ...
Crankshaft Sensor. ...
Engine temperature sensor…
Other Sensors. ...
•

Mechanical sensors detect some form of mechanical deformation and
translate the deformation into an electrical signal. The mechanical
deformation can occur due to a variety of stimuli. Mechanical sensors are
one of the most commonly used classes of sensors for biomechatronic
applications.
Biomechatronics is a new field of mechanical engineering. Examples:
1. A pancreas pacemakers for diabetics: imagine a device that could sense

your sugar blood levels an adjust insulin levels accordingly.
2. An electronic muscle stimulators for stroke and accident survivors:
people who are in car accidents usually remain disable because of loss of
certain muscle functions. Imagine a device that can stimulate damaged
muscles and make those muscle contract or relax according to what is
needed.
3. A digital camera that can be controlled mentally so blind people can get
some sort of vision sensation
4. A digital microphone that could be implanted in deaf people so they
•
could hear again or for the first time

Mining Industry
• The mining environment can be likened to a
hostile workplace.
• Miners work with excessive noise levels in

poorly illuminated areas, and may be exposed
to toxic gases and dusts, excessive heat,
humidity, and vibration.

INTRODUCTION
• Measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a

physical variable. Can also be defined as a comparison with
a standard
• Instrumentation is the application of instruments for

monitoring, sensing and measurement
• Purpose
Product testing and quality control
Monitoring in the interest of health, safety or costing
Part of a control system
Research and development

Measurement …………comparison with a standard
For accurate measurement:
One should be aware of the standard against which the

comparison is being made.
The instrument should be periodically calibrated and
routinely maintained.
Calibration is the process of applying known input value

to a measurement system for the purpose of observing
the system output value. The known value is called
standard
•
Electrical instruments are favoured over
mechanical instruments for the following
reasons:
1. They have a rapid speed of response
2. Electrical signals can be increase in

amplitude and transmitted over long
distances
•

The Measurement System
A measurement system can be broadly represented by

three basic parts, these are:
1. A transducer
2. A signal conditioner
3. A recorder or indicator
•
The Transducer is an energy converter which receives
the physical quantity being measured (measurand) and
converts it into some other physical variable; flow to
pressure, Speed to voltage, strain to resistance, etc.
The Signal Conditioner rearranges the transduced

signal into a form which can be readily recorded or
monitored
The Recorder or Display records or displays the result

of the measurement. Many recorders have a transducing
action at their input followed by further signal
conditioning.
•
Examples of physical quantities that can be measured
are:
1. Displacement
2. Speed
3. Temperature
4. Pressure
5. Force, etc.
Examples of measurement systems are:
1. Voltmeter
2. Bourdon tube pressure
3. Clinical thermometer etc
•

A clinical thermometer system

A clinical thermometer system

Loading Effects
• The measuring devices absorb energy from the source,
this changes the characteristics of the quantity being
measured. The device is said to load the circuit.
• If a tachogenerator is used to measure speed of

rotation, the tachogenerator causes the friction and
inertia of the system to increase thus decreasing the
speed of rotation.
•
• If an analogue voltmeter is used for measurement, it
will use power from the system being measured for its
operation
• The true value is the value obtained from an instrument

deemed by experts to be acceptably accurate.

System performance
• In an ideal system, the output has a linear
relationship with the measurand, thus the
output is a faithful reproduction of the
input.
• Sensor’s characteristics (performance) can
be classified into groups:
• 1.Static performance are time-independent
• 2.Dynamic performance time-dependent

Static Performance
• When steady or constant input signals are
applied, comparison of the steady output with
the ideal case gives the static performance of
the system
• Static performance is defined by the following

terms:
1. Sensitivity
2. Accuracy
3. Precision etc.

Static Performance terms
Range is the limits between which the input can vary.

The range of a sensor refers to the lower and upper
limit operating values of the stimulus, that is, the
minimum and maximum input for which a valid output is
obtained. For example, a temperature sensor may
operate between -45C and +110C.

SPAN
The span of a sensor is the arithmetic difference
between the highest and lowest values of the stimulus
that can be sensed within acceptable errors (i.e., the
difference between the range values). This may also be
called the input full scale (IFS) of the sensor. The
output full scale (OFS) is the difference between the
upper and lower ranges of the output of the sensor
corresponding to the span of the sensor.
A sensor measures temperature between -30 OC and

+80 OC and produces an output between 2.5 V and 1.2 V.
The span (IFS) is 80 OC - (-30 OC) = 110 OC and the
OFS is 2.5 V - 1.2 V = 1.3 V. The range of the sensor is
between -30 OC and +80 OC.
•

The resolution of a sensor is the minimum
increment in stimulus to which it can respond. It
is the magnitude of the input change that
results in the smallest discernible output.
Resolution is the smallest change of input to an

instrument which can be detected with
certainty, expressed as a percentage of full
scale.

EXAMPLES
1. A sensor may be said to have a resolution of 0.01 OC,

meaning that an increment in temperature of 0.01 OC
produces a readily measurable output.
2. If a voltmeter is digital and it has an increment of

0.01 V, then this is the resolution of the instrument,
and by extension, that of the sensing system made
of the sensor and the instrument.
3. Resolution may be specified in the units of the

stimulus, 0.5 OC for a temperature sensor, 1 mT for a
magnetic field sensor, 0.1 mm for a proximity
sensor, etc.) or may be specified as a percentage
of the span (0.1%, for example).
•

Resolution of a system
Suppose a signal is digitized and measured with a two-digit digital

voltmeter capable of measuring up to 1 V (span). The possible
measurement is between 0 and 0.99 V with a resolution of 0.01 V or
1%. In this case the resolution is limited by the voltmeter whereas
the signal is continuous.
For a 3-digit voltmeter, measurement is from 0 – 0.999 and the

resolution is 0.001 V.
A 3 1/2 digits digital multimeter has three full digits that can
change from 0 to 9 and a one-half digit that can change to either 0
or 1 (0 – 1999)
1 V range, 0 – 0.999 V with resolution of 0.001 (1 mV)

2000
• V range, 0 – 1999 V with a resolution of 1 V
The dynamic range of a device (sensor) is the
ratio of the span of the device and the minimum
discernible quantity the device is capable of
(resolution).
The use of dynamic range is particularly useful

in devices with large spans and for that reason
is usually expressed in decibels.

•

Dynamic range of a temperature sensor
A silicon temperature sensor has a range between 0 OC and

90 OC. The accuracy is defined in the data sheet as ±0.5 OC.
Calculate the dynamic range of the sensor.
The resolution is not given, therefore the accuracy is taken

as the minimum measurable quantity. In general, these need
not be the same. Since the minimum resolution is 0.5O, the
dynamic range is

Dynamic range of a loudspeaker
A loudspeaker is rated at 6 W and requires a minimum power

of 0.001 W to overcome internal friction.
What is its dynamic range? Clearly, any change smaller than 1

mW will not change the position of the speaker’s cone and
hence no change in output will be produced. Thus 1 mW is the
resolution of the speaker and the dynamic range of the
speaker is

In digital sensors the signal levels change in
increments of bits. In general, a dynamic range is
defined based on the digital representation or on
the equivalent analog signal. In an N-digit device,
the ratio between the highest and lowest
representable level is 2N /1 = 2N. Therefore the
dynamic range may be written as:

Dynamic range of an A/D converter
A 16-bit analog to digital [A/D] converter is used to convert an

analog music recording into digital format so it can be stored
digitally and played back (by converting it back to analog form). The
amplitude varies between -6 V and +6 V.
a. Calculate the smallest signal increment that can be used.
b. Calculate the dynamic range of the A/D conversion.

Static Performance
Sensitivity
The ratio of the change in output to the corresponding
change in input is defined as static sensitivity K.
Where Δθo = the change in output

Where Δθi = the change in input
The sensitivity of a sensor or actuator is defined as the

change in output for a given change in input, usually a
unit change in input. Clearly, sensitivity represents the
slope of the transfer function.
•

Fig. (a) shows a linear relationship between output and
input, and sensitivity therefore equals the
slope of the calibration graph and is constant.
In the case of a nonlinear relationship shown in Fig. (b),

the sensitivity will vary according to the value of the
output.

BREAK

Transfer Function
The transfer characteristic function, the input/output

characteristic function or response of a device is a
relationship between the output and input of the device,
usually indicated as:
where x is the input (stimulus in sensors or, say, current

to an actuator) and S is the output. The dependence of
the output S on x indicates that this function can be
(and often is) nonlinear.

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC, the input-output relationship
Resistance temperature relationship in a hypothetical
temperature sensor.
The range between T1 and T2 is approximately linear and may be

described by the following transfer function:
where R is the resistance of the sensor (output) and T is the

temperature it senses (input) in the range T1<T<T2.
•

Sensitivity and Sensitivity Analysis
Sensitivity (s) represents the slope of the transfer

function:
For the linear transfer function , where the output is

resistance (R) and the input is temperature (T), then

Sensitivity (Gain)

Sensitivity

Sensitivity

Accuracy, Errors, and Repeatability
The errors involved in sensing and actuating

define the accuracy of the device. Errors
represent deviations of the device output from
the ideal.
Inaccuracies in the output (i.e., in the transfer

function) stem from materials, construction
tolerances, aging, operational errors, calibration
errors, matching (impedance) or loading errors,
etc.

Accuracy defined in terms of errors.
(𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆)
(𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆)

•

Errors in sensing
A thermistor is used to measure temperatures between

-30 OC and +80 OC and produces an output voltage between
2.8 V and 1.5 V. The ideal transfer function is shown
below(solid line). Because of errors, the accuracy in sensing is
+0.5 OC.

Accuracy versus Precision
“Precision” is a term often confused with accuracy, but
a precise measurement may not be an accurate
measurement. If the measuring device is subjected to
the same input for several times and the indicated
results lie closely together, then the instrument is said
to be of high precision.

Repeatability
Also called reproducibility, of sensors is an important

design characteristic and simply indicates the failure of
the sensor to represent the same value (i.e., stimulus
for sensors) under identical conditions when measured
at different times.
It is usually associated with calibration and is viewed as

an error. It is the maximum difference between two
readings (either two calibration readings or two
measurement readings) taken at different times under
identical input conditions. Usually the error will be given
as a percentage of input full scale (IFS).
•

Possible and probable errors

•

Linearity (non-linearity error) is the maximum deviation
from a linear relationship between input and output,
expressed as a percentage of full scale.
Nonlinearity may be either a property of a sensor or an error
due to deviation of a device’s ideal, linear transfer function.
A nonlinear transfer function is a property of the device. A
nonlinearity error is a quantity that influences the accuracy
of the device.
Linear approximations of nonlinear transfer functions.

•

Hysteresis (literally lag) is the deviation of the sensor’s output at
any given point when approached from two different directions,
meaning that the output at a given value of stimulus when it
increases and when it decreases is different.
The sources of hysteresis are either mechanical (friction, slack in
moving members), electrical (such as due to magnetic hysteresis in
ferromagnetic materials), or due to circuit elements with inherent
hysteresis.

Saturation refers to the behavior of sensors or actuators
when they no longer respond to the input or, more likely,
their response is reduced. This usually occurs at or near the
ends of their span and indicates that the output is no longer
a function of the input or is a highly reduced function of the
input.
In the figure shown the sensor exhibits saturation at points
below T1 and above T2, as seen by the flattening of the
curves.

Two reasons for avoiding saturation in sensors
1. Sensing is inaccurate at best and the sensitivity,

and often the response, is reduced.
2. Saturation may, damage the device. In actuators

this may mean that any additional power
supplied does not produce an increase in the
output power of the device (i.e., sensitivity is
reduced), leading to internal heating and
possible damage.

•

•

Tolerance is the maximum error
Value of resistance will ±value.

Frequency response (also called the frequency transfer
function) of a device indicates the ability of the device to
respond to a harmonic (sinusoidal) input. Typically the
frequency response shows the output (as a magnitude of the
output or gain) of a device as a function of the frequency at
the input
Frequency response of a device showing the half-power

points.
•

The frequency response is important in that it
indicates the range of frequencies of the
stimulus for which the output is adequate (i.e.,
does not deteriorate or increase the error due
to the inability of the device to operate at a
frequency or range of frequencies).

For sensors, the frequency response provides three
important design parameters.
1. The bandwidth of the device. This is the frequency

range between the two pre-agreed upon points A and B
at -3 dB.
2. The useful frequency range or flat frequency range

(or static range), which is that portion of the bandwidth
that is flat.
3. The response time (or delay time) of the device,

which indicates the time needed for the output to reach
steady state (or a given percentage of steady state) for
a step change in input.
•

Frequency response of a magnetic sensor
The frequency response of a magnetic sensor, the eddy current

sensor, used to detect flaws in conducting structures is shown in
below.
It is a common sensor in testing of tubes for internal or external
flaws. The frequency response is rather narrow, indicating that the
sensor is resonant, in this case with a center frequency of about
290 kHz.

Nevertheless, the resonance is not very sharp,
indicating a lossy resonant circuit. Operation is at a
frequency around the resonant frequency.
The output of the sensor is typically a voltage when

fed with a constant current source or a current when
fed with a constant voltage source (i.e., either the
voltage across the sensor or the current in the sensor
is measured, depending on the way the sensor is fed).
The amplitude and phase of the output are then

related to the size, type, and location of flaws.
•

Calibration
Calibration is the experimental determination of
the transfer function of a sensor or actuator.
Calibration of a device is needed when the transfer

function is not known or, more likely, when the
device must be operated at tolerances below those
specified by the manufacturer.
Tolerances indicate the maximum deviations of the

device’s transfer function from the ideal, if the
device needs to operate at lower tolerances, the
exact transfer function for the specific device
must be specified
•

Calibration is a critical step in the use of
sensors or actuators and should be undertaken
with the utmost care.
Measurements must be meticulous, instruments

as accurate as possible, and conditions as close
as possible to those under which the sensor or
actuator will operate.
One should also establish the errors in

calibration or, at the very least, have a good
estimate of the errors.
•

Excitation
Excitation refers to the electrical supply required for operation

of a sensor.
It may specify the range of voltages under which the device
should operate (say, 2–12 V), the range of current, power
dissipation, maximum excitation as a function of temperature,
and sometimes frequency.
Together with other specifications (such as mechanical

properties and electromagnetic compatibility [EMC] limits), it
defines the normal operating conditions of the sensor.
Failure to follow rated values may result in erroneous

outputs or premature failure of the device.

Dead-band is the largest change of input to which the
system does not respond due to friction or backlash
effects, expressed as a percentage
A device should not operate in this range unless this

insensitivity is acceptable.

Reliability
Reliability is a statistical measure of the quality of a

device that indicates the ability of the device to
perform its stated function, under normal operating
conditions, without failure, for a stated period of
time or number of cycles.
Reliability may be specified in hours or years of

operation or as number of cycles or number of
failures in a sample.

The failure rate is the number of components that
fail per given time period, typically per hour.
A more common method of specifying the reliability

of devices is in mean time between failures (MTBF).
MTBF is the reciprocal of the failure rate:
MTBF = 1/(failure rate).
Another common term used to specify reliability is

the failure in time (FIT) value. This measure gives
the number of failures in 109 device-hours of
operation.
•

Reliability is heavily influenced by the operating conditions of
devices.
1. Elevated temperatures, higher voltages and currents,

environmental conditions (such as humidity) reduce
reliability, sometimes dramatically.
2. Any condition exceeding rated values must be taken into

account and the reliability data derated accordingly.
3. In some cases these data are available from

manufacturers or professional organizations dedicated to
issues of reliability.
4. Calculators are available allowing the user to estimate

reliability.
•

•

BREAK

Dynamic performance
• The static characteristics of measuring
instruments are concerned only with the
steady-state reading that the instrument
settles down to, such as the accuracy of the
reading, resolution, sensitivity, precition etc.
• The dynamic characteristics of a measuring
instrument describe its behaviour between
the time a measured quantity changes value
and the time when the instrument output
attains a steady value in response.

Rise Time is the time for the output to change from 10 to 90% of the
final steady–state value.
Time Constant τ (tau) is defined as the time it takes the output to reach
63.2% of the final output.
Settling Time is the time it takes the output to reach within a common
value is the 2% settling time.

The bandwidth defines the frequency range for which the sensor
is designed to operate.
The dynamic performance of both measuring and control systems is

specified by the response to certain standard test inputs. These
inputs are:

Systems are of the following types:
1. Zero-Order systems
Where K = static sensitivity or gain

The response of a zero order instrument to the unit step function
with K = 1.5.
An example of a zero order linear instrument is a wire strain
gauge in which the change in the electrical resistance of the wire
is proportional to the strain in the wire.( Rheostat, potentiometer)

2. First-order systems
The first-order system is one, whose input/output dynamics
are represented by a first-order differential equation of the
form
The equation can be rearranged into a standard form

as follows-

First-order systems
Using Laplace transforms, the solution is:
An exponential transient.

Response of a first-order instrument to a step change
Thermometers for measuring temperature are first-
order instruments.
A cup anemometer for measuring wind speed and
direction is also a first order instrument.

First-order systems
𝑐) 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = 2 𝑠 𝑖𝑖 𝑡 = 0.2 𝜏 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡 = 10𝜏

•

First-order systems
•
3. Second-Order systems
K = static sensitivity
ωn = undamped natural frequency
•
ζ (zeta) = damping ratio
Response of a second-order instrument to a step change
Example of a second order linear instrument are:
1. Galvanometer which measures an electrical current by the torque on a coil
carrying the current in a magnetic field.
2. A U-tube manometer for measuring pressure differences.

• Optimally damped

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MEASUREMENTS and INSTRUMENTATION

C Kawerawera 0999220755 / 0888608859

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 1

Mechanical sensors are used to measure variables such as

The Sensors Used in a Car

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 2

Biomechatronics is a new field of mechanical engineering. Examples:

1. A pancreas pacemakers for diabetics: imagine a device that could sense

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 3

• Miners work with excessive noise levels in

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 4

• Measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a

• Instrumentation is the application of instruments for

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 5

For accurate measurement:

One should be aware of the standard against which the

Calibration is the process of applying known input value

1. They have a rapid speed of response

2. Electrical signals can be increase in

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 7

A measurement system can be broadly represented by

The Signal Conditioner rearranges the transduced

The Recorder or Display records or displays the result

Examples of measurement systems are:

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 10

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 11

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 12

• If a tachogenerator is used to measure speed of

• The true value is the value obtained from an instrument

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 13

• 1.Static performance are time-independent

• 2.Dynamic performance time-dependent

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 14

• Static performance is defined by the following

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 15

Range is the limits between which the input can vary.

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 16

A sensor measures temperature between -30 OC and

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 17

Resolution is the smallest change of input to an

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 18

1. A sensor may be said to have a resolution of 0.01 OC,

2. If a voltmeter is digital and it has an increment of

3. Resolution may be specified in the units of the

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 19

Suppose a signal is digitized and measured with a two-digit digital

For a 3-digit voltmeter, measurement is from 0 – 0.999 and the

1 V range, 0 – 0.999 V with resolution of 0.001 (1 mV)

The use of dynamic range is particularly useful

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 21

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 22

A silicon temperature sensor has a range between 0 OC and

The resolution is not given, therefore the accuracy is taken

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 23

A loudspeaker is rated at 6 W and requires a minimum power

What is its dynamic range? Clearly, any change smaller than 1

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 24

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 25

A 16-bit analog to digital [A/D] converter is used to convert an

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 26

Where Δθo = the change in output

The sensitivity of a sensor or actuator is defined as the

7/7/2022 Measurements and Instrumentation 27