Chapter IV

Introduction to Microsystems
 Review of Measurement system
• A fundamental part of many mechatronic systems is a measurement system.
• Its main function is to collect the information on system status and to feed it to
the micro-processor(s) for controlling the whole system.
• It is composed of the three basic parts i.e Sensor, signal processor and
display or recorder.
• Transducer is a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to
another form. It may be sensor or actuator.
• Signal processor is performs filtering, amplification, or other signal
conditioning on the transducer output.
• Recorder is an instrument, a computer, a hard-copy device, or simply a
display that maintains the sensor data for online monitoring or subsequent
processing.
 Sensor Technology
• Sensor is a sensing device that converts a physical input into an output,
usually a voltage.
• Sensors measure something, which we call a measurand.
• For a mechatronics system designer it is quite difficult to choose suitable
sensors/transducers for the desired application(s).
• It is therefore essential to learn the principle of working of commonly used
sensors/transducers.
• Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out
the production operations as well as process monitoring activities.
 Sensor...
• Sensor technology has the following important advantages in
transforming a conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one .
1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the
sub units of manufacturing system. It helps operators to reduce the
downtime of complete manufacturing system by carrying out the
preventative measures.
2. Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labors.
3. Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.
 Sensor ….
Sensor/transducers specifications
• Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect systems.
• Mechatronics design engineer must know the capability and shortcoming of a transducer or
measurement system to properly assess its performance.
• There are a number of performance related parameters of a transducer or measurement
system.
• These parameters are called as sensor specifications.
• Sensor specifications inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal behavior of the
sensors.
• Following are the various specifications of a sensor/transducer system.
1. Range: indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
2. Span: The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input
 Sensor ….
3. Error: is the difference between the result of the measurement and
the true value.
4. Accuracy: is the closeness of the agreement between the actual
measurement result and a true value of the measurand.
5. Precision: Is the closeness of repeated measurement values.
6. Sensitivity: Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change
in output value of a sensor to the per unit change in input value that
causes the output change
7. Nonlinearity: The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of
the actual measured curve of a sensor from the ideal curve.
 Sensor ….
Linearity is the extent over which the output signal is
linear with respect to the measurand.
 Sensor ….
8. Hysteresis:
• is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in
output at any measurement value within the sensor’s specified range
when approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing
the input parameter.
• The difference between the output signals for the same magnitude of the
measurand while the measurand is increasing and decreasing.
Sensor ….
9. Resolution: Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of
input parameter that can be detected in the output signal.
10. Stability: Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output
when used to measure a constant input over a period of time.
11. Dead band: The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of
input values for which there is no output.
12. Dead time: The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the
application of an input until the output begins to respond or change.
13. Repeatability : It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for
repeated applications of same input value.
Sensor ….
14. Response time:
• Describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change
of the measurand.
• The time lag between the instance the measurand changes and
the instance the output signal changes completely.
 Sensor ….
Example of measurement system
• Thermocouple is the transducer/sensor that convert the temperature in to small voltage.
• The amplifier increase the magnitude of the voltage.
• The ADC is a device that changes the analog signal to the coded digital signal.
• The LED record/display the scaled value of the temperature.
 Sensor ….
Classification of sensors based on their application in manufacturing.
• Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as
measurand, application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand
and thermodynamic considerations.

A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors

1. Potentiometer sensors
The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the slider over the wire.
Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against the output voltage VA.
 Sensor ….
Applications of potentiometer

These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop
to ensure
that the moving member or component reaches its commanded position.
• These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level
assemblies,
forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls.
• In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding machines,
woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc.
• These are also used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports
equipment.
Sensor ….
Strain Gauges
• The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of
applied load to the original length of an element.
• The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we can say,

• where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor and

its value ranges from 2 to 4.
Sensor ….
• As the work piece undergoes change in its shape due to external loading, the
resistance of strain gauge element changes.
• This change in resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone’s
resistance bridge as shown in Figure bellow.
• In the balanced bridge we can have a relation R2/ R1 = Rx / R3
• where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable
resistor, R1
and R3 are known constant value resistors.
• The measured deformation or displacement
by the stain gauge is calibrated against change
in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which
makes the voltage across nodes A and B
equal to zero.
Sensor ….
Applications of strain gauges
• Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis
on machines and failure analysis.
• They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing,
residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending
and deflection measurement, compression and tension measurement and
strain measurement.
• Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in
automotives.
 Sensor ….
Capacitive element based sensor

• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the
linear displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters.
• It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair
another. The linear displacement might take in two forms:
a. One of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes
b. Area of overlap changes due to the displacement
 Sensor ….
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

• As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the
element/work piece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between
the plate changes.

• Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor.

 Sensor ….
Applications of capacitive element sensors

• Feed hopper level monitoring

• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications to measure shape errors in the part being produced
• Assembly line testing to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design
features
 Sensor ….
Linear variable differential transformer
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for
measurement of linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm
in general.
• The working principle of LVDT sensor is as shown bellow
• LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility.
 Sensor ….
Applications of LVDT sensors

• To measure the spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications

• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM

Note; Let you have a read about the rest of the displacement and position sensor, Velocity, motion,
force and pressure sensors
 Sensor ….
Temperature and light sensors

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or

contraction of solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors,
semiconductors and thermoelectric emfs

Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors are widely used
in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal cutting etc.
1. Bimetallic strips
 Sensor ….
Bimetallic strips working principle:
• Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system.
• It contains two different metal strips bonded together.
• The metals have different coefficients of expansion.
• On heating the strips bend into curved strips with the metal with higher coefficient of
expansion on the outside of the curve.
• As the strips bend, the soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and
further touches.
• Then the electric circuit completes and generates an alarm.
• In this way bimetallic strips help to protect the desired application from heating above
the pre-set value of temperature.
 Sensor ….
2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
• RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to
change in its temperature.

where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α
is the constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance.
 Sensor ….
• It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone bridge.
• The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a sheath.
• A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil.
• As the temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the
Wheatstone bridge.
applications areas:

• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing, Food Processing, Stoves and grills
• Textile production, Plastics processing, Petrochemical processing, Micro electronics
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement
 Sensor ….
3. Thermistors:
Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing
temperature.

4. Thermocouple:
Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to temperature.
 Sensor ….
Light sensors

• A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light.

• There are different types of light sensors such as photocell/photoresistor and photo
diodes being used in manufacturing and other industrial applications.
1. Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR).
• It has a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity.
• It is made of a high resistance semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS).
• The resistance of a CdS photoresistor varies inversely to the amount of light incident
upon it.
• Photoresistor follows the principle of photoconductivity which results from the
generation of mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor
material.
 Sensor ….
Applications of photo resistor
• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to
automatically control the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and robots.
• The light sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be programmed to have a
specific reaction if a certain amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control
2. Photo diodes
Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric
current.
 Sensor ….
Micro sensors
• Microsensors are the miniaturized version of the conventional
sensors with improved performance and reduced cost.
• Silicon micromachining technology has helped the development
of many micro sensors and continues to be one of the most active
research and development topics in this area.
• Miniaturization os sensor is used to optimize the sensor in terms
of cost, size, and power consumption while while improving the
performance.
• A lot of commercial micro sensors are now available.
 Signal Conditioning Devices
Transducers sense physical phenomenon such as rise in temperature and convert the
measurand into an electrical signal viz. voltage or current.
• However these signals may not be in their appropriate forms to employ them
to control a mechatronics system.
 Signal ….
• Signal conditioning system enhances the quality of signal coming from a sensor in
terms of:
1. Protection
To protect the damage to the next element of mechatronics system
such microprocessors from the high current or voltage signals.
2. Right type of signal
To convert the output signal from a transducer into the desired form i.e. voltage /
current.
3. Right level of the signal
To amplify or attenuate the signals to a right /acceptable level for the next
element.
4. Noise
To eliminate noise from a signal.
5. Manipulation
To manipulate the signal from its nonlinear form to the linear form.
 Signal ….
1. Amplification/Attenuation
• Various applications of Mechatronics system such as machine tool control unit of a
CNC machine tool accept voltage amplitudes in range of 0 to 10 Volts. However
many sensors produce signals of the order of milli volts.
• This low level input signals from sensors must be amplified to use them for further control
action.
• Operational amplifiers (op-amp) are widely used for amplification of input signals.
• Operational Amplifier is a basic and an important part of a signal conditioning system.
 Signal ….
• op-amp amplifies the difference between input voltages (V+ and V-). The
output of an operational amplifier can be written as

2. Filtering
• Output signals from sensors contain noise due to various external factors like
improper hardware connections, environment etc.
• Noise gives an error in the final output of system.
• Therefore it must be removed.
• In practice, change in desired frequency level of output signal is a commonly noted
noise.
 Signal ….
Following types of filters are used in practice:
1. Low Pass Filter
Low pass filter is used to allow low frequency content and to reject high frequency
content of an input signal
Signal ….
2. High Pass Filter
These types of filters allow high frequencies to pass through it and block the lower
frequencies.

3. Band Pass Filter

4. Band Reject Filter
 2. Actuation Systems
• Actuators are basically the muscle behind a mechatronics system
that accepts a control command (mostly in the form of an electrical
signal) and produces a change in the physical system by generating
force, motion, heat, flow, etc.
• Actuators can be classified based on the type of energy.
• They are electrical, electromechanical, electromagnetic, hydraulic,
or pneumatic type.
• The new generations of actuators include smart material actuators,
micro actuators, and Nano actuators.
2. Actuation ….
• Actuation systems are the elements of control systems
which are responsible for transforming the output of a
microprocessor or control system into a controlling
action on a machine of device:
• Mechanical actuators act upon something and move it
with force or torque.
There are many types of actuators.
Based on the type of output energy released
Based on the way output energy is released
Based on the input energy used
2. Actuation ….

• Actuators are transducers covert one form of energy

to another form.
 2. Actuation …
Actuators with different output energies

• Mechanical actuators produce motion, Motors,

engines, pumps
• Acoustic actuators produce sound
• Optical actuators produce light, LEDs, solid‐state
lasers
• Others produce radiation and fields
Actuation …
Micro- and Nano actuators

• Micro actuators, also called micro machines.

• Micro machine device produced by assembling
extremely small functional parts of around 1–15 mm.
• Micro electromechanical system (MEMS), and
microsystems are the tiny mobile devices.
• Developed utilizing the standard microelectronics
processes with the integration of semiconductors and
machined micromechanical elements.
Actuation …
Micro- …
• In electrostatic motors, electrostatic force is dominant,
unlike the conventional motors that are based on
magnetic forces.
• For smaller micromechanical systems the electrostatic
forces are well suited as an actuating force.
• Produce motions over small distances in the order of
microns to mm.
• Produce small forces in the order of pN to mN.
• Produce motion and force in entities of small sizes.
Actuation …

Most common types of actuators

1. Electrical Actuator
2. Electromechanical Actuators
3. Hydraulic & Pneumatic Actuator
4. Electromagnetic Actuators
5. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
6. Smart Material Actuators
Actuation….
1. Electrical Actuators
• They are machines/devices that convert electrical energy to
mechanical energy.
• Electrical switches are the choice of actuators for most of the
on-off type control action.
• Switching devices such as diodes, transistors, triacs, MOSFET,
and relays accept a low energy level command signal from the
controller and switch on or off electrical devices such as
motors, valves, and heating elements.
 Electrical actuator…..
• The gate terminal receives the low energy control signal from the
controller that makes or breaks the connection between the power
supply and the actuator load.
• When switches are used, the designer must make sure that switch
bounce problem is eliminated either by hardware or software.
 Electrical ….
• The most common electromechanical actuator is a motor that
converts electrical energy to mechanical motion.
• Motors are the principal means of converting electrical energy into
mechanical energy in industry.
• Broadly they can be classified as DC motors, AC motors, and
stepper motors.
• DC motors operate on voltage and varying the voltage can easily
control their speed
• They are widely used in applications ranging from thousands of
horsepower motors used in rolling mills to fractional horsepower
motors used in automobiles (starter motors, fan motors, windshield
wiper motors, etc.)
 Electrical ….
• Electrical Actuators are
• Easy to control
• From mw to MW
• Normally high velocities 1000 - 10000 rpm
• Several types
• Accurate servo control
• Ideal torque for driving
• Excellent efficiency
• Autonomous power system difficult
 Electrical ….
DC Motors
• The most common actuator in Mechatronic systems is the Direct Current (DC)
motor
✓ Rotary actuators
✓ Power range: Fractions of watts to 100s of kW.
✓ Easy to control accurately
❖Advantages:
✓ Simple,cheap,
✓ Various sizes and packages.
❖Disadvantages:
✓ Limited overloading on high speeds
✓ Wear at rubbing surfaces
 Electrical ….
Basic Operation
Current flowing through a conductor in a magnetic field induces a
force perpendicular to the field and to itself.
 Electrical ….
Stepper Motors
 Electrical ….
Permanent magnet stepper motors
• Rotor is a permanent magnet and the stator is an electromagnet
• Rotor field is switched to create a rotating magnetic field
Variable reluctance stepper motors
• The rotor is made of soft steel (ferromagnetic)
• Motion is based on the attraction of rotor and stator poles
to position with minimum
• magnetic reluctance which allows maximum magnetic flux.
Electrical ….
 Electrical ….
Principle of operation
 Electrical ….
Stepper Motor Applications
 Electrical ….
• More accurately controlled than a normal motor allowing
fractional turns or revolutions to be easily done
• Low speed, and lower torque than a comparable D.C. motor
• Useful for precise positioning
 Electrical ….
AC-motors
 Electrical ….
AC-motors
 Electrical ….
AC motors: Some applications

• Large Cranes or material handling systems

• Belts or conveyors
• High Speed Trains
• Electric Drive Haul
Trucks (930E)
• Selection of a motor for a particular application is based
on Moment of inertia, Torque, Power and Cost.
 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
• Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are normally either rotary motors
or linear piston/cylinder or control valves.
• They are ideally suited for generating very large forces coupled with
large motion.
• Pneumatic actuators use air under pressure that is most suitable for
low to medium force, short stroke, and high speed applications.
• Hydraulic actuators use pressurized oil that is incompressible. They
can produce very large forces coupled with large motion in a cost-
effective manner.
• The disadvantage with the hydraulic actuators is that they are more
complex and need more maintenance.
 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
• The rotary motors are usually used in applications where low speed
and high torque are required.
• The cylinder/piston actuators are suited for application of linear
motion such as aircraft flap control.
• Control valves in the form of directional control valves are used in
conjunction with rotary motors and cylinders to control the fluid
flow direction.
 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
B. Pneumatic Power Actuation
• Pneumatic actuation is widely used in the manufacturing industry
primarily in the field of automated.
• Assembly, including jig and robot end-effector operation.
• Pneumatic power generally utilizes pressurised air as the power
transfer medium.
• Pneumatic power lies is used both for pneumatic power modulation
as well as for energy transfer devices
• The use of air as the operating fluid.
• The primary type of energy transfer device found in pneumatics is
the pneumatic cylinder.
 Hydraulic and Pneumatic ….
• The motion of the cylinder occurs by applying pressurised air at one
of two ports found at the ends of the cylinder.

Figure: Pneumatic actuation operation.

 Hydraulic and Pneumatic…
C. Hydraulic Power Actuation
• Hydraulic fluid power basic operating principles are quite similar to
those of pneumatic fluid power systems.
• The difference in operating fluid, i.e. from air or gas in pneumatic
systems to liquids (generally oil) in hydraulics.
• Primarily, the use of liquids allows the achievement of very high
operating pressures
• Used where large forces and torques need to be applied.
• Hydraulic actuators can both be of a linear as well as a rotary
nature.
 Actuator selection Citeria
The selection of the proper actuator is more complicated than
selection of the sensors, due to;
• Their effect on the dynamic behavior of the overall system.
• The actuator dominates the power needs and the coupling
mechanisms of the entire system.
• The coupling mechanism can sometimes be completely avoided if
the actuator provides the output that can be directly interfaced
to the physical system.
• For example, choosing a linear motor in place of a rotary motor can
eliminate the need of a coupling mechanism to convert rotary
motion to linear motion.
 Actuator selection Citeria
The following performance parameters must be addressed before
choosing an actuator for a specific need:
1. Continuous power output; The maximum force/torque attainable
continuously without exceeding the temperature limits.
2. Range of motion—The range of linear/rotary motion
3. Resolution—The minimum increment of force/torque attainable
 Actuator selection Citeria
4. Heat dissipation—Maximum wattage of heat dissipation in
continuous operation
5. Speed characteristics—Force/torque versus speed relationship
6. No load speed—Typical operating speed/velocity with no external
load
7. Frequency response—The range of frequency over which the
output follows the input faithfully, applicable to linear actuators
8. Power requirement—Type of power (AC or DC), number of
phases, voltage level, and current capacity
End of Chapter 4