Basic Mechatronics Measurements &

Instruments

Session 2
Module 2
Different types of Measurements
CONTENTS
• Different types of Measurements
• Pressure measurement
• Temperature measurement
• Flow measurement
• Displacement measurement
• Liquid level measurement
• Humidity/moisture measurement
• Vibration measurement
 Sensor and transducer
• ‘Sensor' is `a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it into a signal which
can be measured or recorded. The physical quantity under measurement makes its first contact in
the time of measurement with a sensor. A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and
converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument.
• ‘Transducer' is 'a device that transfers power from one system to another in the same or in the
different form'. Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form to another energy. The
majority either convert electrical energy to mechanical displacement or convert some non-
electrical physical quantity, such as temperature, sound or light to an electrical signal.

‘Sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the sensing element plus any associated
circuitry. All transducers would thus contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would also be
transducers.
Different types of Measurements
• For example, a mercury thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion
and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple
converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy,
all sensors need to be calibrated against known standards.
1. Pressure measurement

Static Pressure. Pressure, P, is defined as force, F, per unit area, A:

Pressure = Force / Area
• Pressure can be used to measure other variables such as Flow and Level
• Pressure plays a major role in determining the Boiling Point of Liquids
• Fluids exerts pressure on the containing vessel equally and in all directions
Pressure measurement methods:
a) Mechanical Methods
b) Electrical Methods
1. Pressure measurement

Pressure

• Pressure is sensed by mechanical elements such as

plates, shells, and tubes that are designed and Sensing
constructed to deflect when pressure is applied. Element
• This is the basic mechanism converting pressure to
physical movement. displacement

• Next, this movement must be transduced to obtain an Transduction

electrical or other output. element
• Finally, signal conditioning may be needed, depending
electric
on the type of sensor and the application. Figure
illustrates the three functional blocks. Signal
Conditioner

V or I output
1. Pressure measurement

The pressure, or force, measurement can be done by

converting the applied pressure or force into a displacement
by elastic elements which acts as a primary transducer. The
displacement of the elastic element which is a function of the
applied force may be measured by the transducer which acts
as a secondary transducer. The output of the secondary
transducer is a function of the displacement, which in turn is
a function of pressure or force which is the measurand. Some
mechanical methods are used to convert the applied pressure
of force into displacement. These mechanical devices are
called force summing devices.
The most commonly used summing devices are
1. Flat or corrugated diaphragms
2. Pivot torque
3. Straight tube
4. Single or double mass cantilever suspension
5. Circular or twisted Bourdon tube
6. Bellows
1. Pressure measurement

Secondary Transducers
The displacement produced by the action of the force
summing devices is converted into a change of some
electrical parameter. The various transducers used for this
purpose are of the following types:
1. Resistive
2. Inductive
3. Differential transformer
4. Capacitive
5. Photo-electric
6. Piezo-electric
7. Ionization
8. Oscillation.
 Manometers
Manometers measure a pressure difference by balancing the
weight of a fluid column between the two pressures of interest.

Where
p is unknown pressure
Po is Ambient pressure
r is fluid density
g is gravitational force
h is fluid column
Different Setup to measure
Pressure
(a) Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is an electrical transducer; it is used to measure mechanical surface tension. Strain gauge
can detect and convert force or small mechanical displacement into electrical signals. On the application of
force a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes owing to the fact both length and
diameter of conductor change. Also, there is a change on the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is
strained and this property of the metal is called piezo resistive effect.

Application: The strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and associated stress in experimental
stress analysis. Secondly, many other detectors and transducers, for example the load cell, torque meter,
flow meter, accelerometer employ strain gauge as a secondary transducer.

Method: There is the Wheatstone bridge arrangement where the change in pressure is detected as a change
in the measured voltage:
Differential pressure measurement with diaphragm and strain gauges

The change in the resistance of the strain gauge breaks the balance of the Wheatstone’s bridge and change
the voltage V. The voltage V is proportional to the pressure change in the strain gauge.

Attaching a strain gauge to a diaphragm results in a device that changes resistance with applied pressure.
Pressure forces the diaphragm to deform, which in turn causes the strain gauge to change resistance. By
measuring this change in resistance, we can infer the amount of pressure applied to the diaphragm.
(b) Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT)
•It consists basically of a primary winding and two secondary windings, wound over a hollow tube and
positioned so the primary winding is between two secondary.
•An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet coupling between the primary and the
two secondary. When the core is in the Centre, voltage induced in the two secondary is equal. When the core
is moved in one direction from Centre, the voltage induced in one winding is increased and that in the other
is decreased.
(b) Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT)
WORKING:
•When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced in the two secondary windings. The frequency of the
ac applied to the primary winding ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
•The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is Es1 and that of secondary winding S2 is Es2.
•In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into a single voltage signal, the two secondary S1 and S2 are connected in series
opposition
•Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages. Therefore the differential output voltage
Eo=Es1- Es2.
•When the core is at its normal position, the flux linking with both secondary windings is equal, and hence equal emfs are
induced in them. Hence, at null position Es1 = Es2. Since the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at null position.
•Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with winding S1 and less with winding S2. Hence,
output voltage Es1 of the secondary winding S1 is greater than Es2 . The magnitude of the output voltage of the secondary is
then Es1 — Es2, in phase with Es1 (the output voltage of secondary winding S1).
•Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux linking with winding S2 becomes greater than that
linked with winding S1. This results in Es2 becoming larger than Es1. The output voltage in this case is Eo = Es2— Es1 and is
in phase with Es2.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
Differential pressure measurement with LVDT

In this the, the bourdon tube act as primary

transducer and LVDT which follows the output of
bourdon tube act as a secondary transducer. The
bourdon tube senses the pressure and converts it
into a displacement. The LVDT gives analogues
output which is a conversion of displacement into
respective emf. This set up is used for
measurement of pressure which is converted into
electrical signal by LVDT.
Different Setup to measure
Temperature
Temperature measurement
Application of heat or its withdrawal from a body produces various primary effects on this body such
as • Change in its physical or chemical state such as phase transition
• Change in its physical dimensions
• Variations in its electrical properties
• Generation of an emf at the junction of two dissimilar metals
• Change in the intensity of the emitted radiation
Any of these effects can be employed to measure the temperature of a body, though the first one is
generally used for standardization of temperature sensors rather than for direct measurement of
temperature.
 (a) Thermocouple
Thomas Seebeck discovered in 1821 that when two dissimilar metals were in contact, a voltage was
generated where the voltage was a function of temperature. The device, consisting of two dissimilar
metals joined together, is called a thermocouple and the voltage is called the Seebeck voltage, according
to the name of the discoverer.

•The joined end is referred to as the HOT JUNCTION. The other end of these dissimilar metals is referred
to as the COLD END or COLD JUNCTION.
•If there is a difference in temperature between the hot junction and cold junction, a small voltage is
created.
•This voltage is referred to as an EMF (electro-motive force) and can be measured and in turn used to
indicate temperature.
 a) Thermocouple
The EMF of the thermocouple :
E = c(T1 – T2) + k(T12 – T22)
Where, c and k = constant of the thermocouple materials
T1 = The temperature of the “hot” junction
T2 = The temperature of the “cold” or “reference” junction
WORKING: Measuring junction is heated, small DC voltage (millivolts) generated in
thermocouple wires. Thermocouple converts thermal energy into electrical energy
Thermocouple only generates a millivoltage signal when there is temperature difference
between “hot” and “cold” junctions. Cold” junction usually set to 32 oF(0oC). Made up of
two different metal alloy wires. Different alloys result in different temperature ranges

Standard Metal Metal Temp. Range

Type Content Content
(Pos. Leg) (Neg. Leg)
B 70.4% (Pt) 93.9% (Pt) 1600-3100 oF
29.6% (Rh) 6.1% (Rh) 870-1700 oC

E 90% (Ni) 55% (Cu) 32-1650 oF

10% (Cr) 45% (Ni) 870-1700 oC
 (b) Thermistor
• A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxide, such as oxides of
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
• They are pressed to bead or wafer form which are heated under pressure at high temp & encapsulated
with glass/epoxy.
• Very Sensitive: Very large resistance change = small temp. change
• 3 – 5% per oC (vs. 0.4% per oC for RTDs)
• Temp. changes as small as 0.1oC
• Significantly smaller in size
• Temp range: -100oC – 300oC (-120oF – 570oF)
Types of thermistor Resistance
Disc 1 to 1MΩ
Washer 1 to 50kΩ
Rod high resistance
 (b) Thermistor
Thermistors are very popular as temperature transducers because
(i) they are compact, rugged, inexpensive,
(ii) their calibration is stable,
(iii) they have a small response time,
(iv) they are amenable to remote measurements, and above all,
(v) their accuracy is high.

There are basically two broad types

1. NTC-Negative Temperature Coefficient: used mostly in temperature sensing
2. PTC-Positive Temperature Coefficient,: used mostly in electric current control.
b) Thermistor
Advantages of thermistor
• Small size and low cost
• Fast response over narrow temperature range
• Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient
(NTC) region
• Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence
of resistance on absolute temperature.
• Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due
to large resistance
Limitations of thermistor
• Non linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics
• Unsuitable for wide temperature range
• Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
• Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high resistance
 c) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• An RTD is basically a temperature sensitive resistor which is a positive
temperature coefficient device
• As like thermocouple it doesn’t produce any voltage by itself
• They are the detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum,
nickel or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with temperature
has high intrinsic accuracy.
• They are available in many configurations and size and as shielded or open units
for both immersion and surface applications like they are used in electrical
appliances such as motors, generators
• The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can be
calculated from the equation:

R  R 0 (1  T )
Where, R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)
R0= the resistance at the reference temperature, usually 200C
α = the temperature coefficient of resistance
ΔT= the difference between the operating and the reference temperature
 How do RTDs work?
• RTD’s resistance as temp.
• Controller measures resistance value and converts to temp.
reading, fairly linear relationship.
• Unlike thermocouple, no electrical signal generated
• Controller measures resistance by passing current through RTD
• Use a base resistance value (ex: for Platinum, value of 100 ohms
at 0oC (32oF)

RTD Resistance Vs. Temp. (TCR) Curve

Resistance
(Ohms) TCR = Temperature coefficient of resistance

Temperature (oC)
 c) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Precision Temperature Sensors with advantages
• More accurate and stable than thermocouple elements
• Maintain accuracy over longer period of time
• Range up to 1200oF (650 oC)
Disadvantages of RTDs
Cost: Platinum is 2x more expensive
Temp. Range limited
Response Time slower, 2x-4x times slower as heat must transfer through epoxy or
glass coating and entire RTD element must reach uniform temp. before accurate
measurement taken.
Flow measurement
(a) Electromagnetic Flow Meters
Principle of Magnetic Flow Meter Based on Faraday’s Law

Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. According to this
principle, when a conductive medium passes through a magnetic field B, a voltage E is generated which is
proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the density of the magnetic field and the length of the
conductor.

In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside the meter body to
generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the conductor and this induces a
voltage which is proportional to the average flow velocity. This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes
mounted in the Magflow meter body and sent to a transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow rate
based on the pipe dimensions.
 Flow Measurement Techniques
Mathematically, we can state Faraday’s law as
E is proportional to V x B x L

[E is the voltage generated in a conductor, V is the velocity of the conductor, B is the magnetic field strength
and L is the length of the conductor].
• It is very important that the liquid flow that is to be measured using the magnetic flow meter must be
electrically conductive.
• Basically when the conductive liquid flows through the magnetic field, voltage is induced. To measure
this generated voltage (which is proportional to the velocity of the flowing liquid), two stainless steel
electrodes are used which are mounted opposite each other.
• The two electrodes which are placed inside the flow meter are then connected to an advanced electronic
circuit that has the ability to process the signal. The processed signal is fed into the microprocessor that
calculates the volumetric flow of the liquid.
 Flow Measurement Techniques

Advantages:
• Minimum obstruction in the flow path yields minimum pressure drop.
• It can measure forward as well as reverse flow with equal accuracy.
• Low maintenance cost because of no moving parts.
• corrosive or slurry fluid flow.

Disadvantage:
• Requires electrical conductivity of fluid

Application:
This electromagnetic flow meter being non intrusive type, can be used in general for
any fluid which is having a reasonable electrical conductivity above 10
microsiemens/cm.
 Ultrasonic flow meter
2) Various types of ultrasonic flow meters
• (1) Transit time (most widely used type): This type of ultrasonic flowmeter makes use
of the difference in the time for a sonic pulse to travel a fixed distance. First against the
flow and then in the direction of flow. sensitive to suspended solids or air bubbles in the
fluid.

(2) Doppler: This type is more popular and less expensive, but is not considered as
accurate as the transit time flow meter.
• It makes use of the Doppler frequency shift caused by sound reflected or scattered from
suspensions in the flow path and is therefore more complementary than competitive to
transit time flow meters.
 Flow Measurement Techniques
2) Ultrasonic based flowmeter
The term ultrasonic is used to describe
pressure waves at frequencies higher than the
human ears can detect The working of
Ultrasonic flow measurement system by
measuring phase difference is shown in the
figure below. The two peizo-crystals p1 and
p2 working both as transmitter and receiver
of signals alternatively are mounted
conveniently, so that the ultrasonic signals
are transmitted between them as well as
through the liquid.
 Flow Measurement Techniques

 
Displacement measurement
 Displacement measurement
Translational displacement transducers are instruments that measure the motion of a body in a
straight line between two points. Apart from their use as a primary transducer measuring the
motion of a body, translational displacement transducers are also widely used as a secondary
component in measurement systems, where some other physical quantity such as pressure,
force, acceleration or temperature is translated into a translational motion by the primary
measurement transducer.

(a) Resistive potentiometer

It consists of a resistance element with a movable contact. A voltage Vs is applied across the
two ends A and B of the resistance element and an output voltage V0 is measured between the
point of contact C of the sliding element and the end of the resistance element A. A linear
relationship exists between the output voltage V0 and the distance AC, which can be
expressed by:
 (a) Resistive potentiometer
The body whose motion is being measured is connected to the sliding element of the
potentiometer, so that translational motion of the body causes a motion of equal
magnitude of the slider along the resistance element and a corresponding change in the
output voltage V0.
 a) Potentiometer

Advantage of Potentiometers
1. They are inexpensive.
2. Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements are not
particularly severe.
3. They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
4. Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to allow control
operations.

Disadvantages of Potentiometers
1. When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move the sliding contacts.
2. The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and generate noise.
(b) Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
The linear variable differential transformer, which is commonly known by the abbreviation LVDT, consists
of a transformer with a single primary winding and two secondary windings connected in the series
opposing manner. The object whose translational displacement is to be measured is physically attached to
the central iron core of the transformer, so that all motions of the body are transferred to the core.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
 (c) Variable capacitance transducers

The principle of variable capacitance is used in displacement

measuring transducers in various ways.
(a) The capacitor plates are formed by two concentric, hollow,
metal cylinders. The displacement to be measured is applied to the
inner cylinder, which alters the capacitance.
(b) It consists of two flat, parallel, metal plates, one of which is
fixed and one of which is movable. Displacements to be measured
are applied to the movable plate, and the capacitance changes as
this moves. Both of these first two forms use air as the dielectric
medium between the plates.
(c) It has two flat, parallel, metal plates with a sheet of solid
dielectric material between them. The displacement to be
measured causes a capacitance change by moving the dielectric
sheet.
Inaccuracies as low as 0.01% are possible with these
instruments, with measurement resolutions of 1 micron
 d) Strain Gauge
• The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that
uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires.
• It is a very versatile detector and transducer for measuring
weight, pressure, mechanical force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain gauge shows a fine wire element
looped back and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually cemented
to the member undergoing stress. A tensile stress tends to elongate the
wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional
area.
Bonded type strain gauges are three types, namely
1. Wire Strain Gauges
2. Foil Strain Gauge
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge
d) Strain Gauge
(e) Piezoelectric transducers
The piezoelectric transducer is effectively a force-measuring device that is used in many instruments
measuring force, or the force-related quantities of pressure and acceleration.
It is included within this discussion of linear displacement transducers because its mode of operation is to
generate an e.m.f. that is proportional to the distance by which it is compressed. The device is
manufactured from a crystal, which can be either a natural material such as quartz or a synthetic material
such as lithium sulphate. The crystal is mechanically stiff (i.e. a large force is required to compress it), and
consequently piezoelectric transducers can only be used to measure the displacement of mechanical
systems that are stiff enough themselves to be unaffected by the stiffness of the crystal.
When the crystal is compressed, a charge is generated on the surface that is measured as the output
voltage.

As a displacement-measuring device, the piezoelectric

transducer has a very high sensitivity, about one thousand
times better than the strain gauge. Its typical inaccuracy is
1% of full-scale reading and its life expectancy is three
million reversals.
Liquid level measurement
Liquid level measurement
A wide variety of instruments are available for measuring the level of liquids. Some of these can also be used
to measure the levels of solids that are in the form of powders or small particles.
(a) Dipsticks offer a simple means of measuring level approximately. The ordinary dipstick is the cheapest
device available. This consists of a metal bar on which a scale is etched. The bar is fixed at a known position
in the liquid-containing vessel. A level measurement is made by removing the instrument from the vessel and
reading off how far up the scale the liquid has wetted.
(b) Float systems, whereby the position of a float on the surface of a liquid is measured by means of a
suitable transducer, have a typical measurement inaccuracy of ±1%. This method is also simple, cheap and
widely used. The system using a potentiometer is very common, and is well known for its application to
monitoring the level in motor vehicle fuel tanks.
(c) Capacitive devices are widely used for measuring the level of both liquids and solids in powdered or
granular form. They perform well in many applications, but become inaccurate if the measured substance is
prone to contamination by agents that change the dielectric constant. They are also suitable for use in
extreme conditions measuring liquid metals (high temperatures), liquid gases (low temperatures), corrosive
liquids (acids, etc.) and high pressure processes.
Liquid level measurement
For non-conducting substances (less than 0.1 µmho/cm3), two bare-metal capacitor plates in the form of
concentric cylinders are immersed in the substance, as shown in Figure. The substance behaves as a dielectric
between the plates according to the depth of the substance.
(d) Ultrasonic level measurement is one of a number of non-contact techniques available. The principle of the
ultrasonic level gauge is that energy from an ultrasonic source above the liquid is reflected back from the liquid
surface into an ultrasonic energy detector. Measurement of the time of flight allows the liquid level to be
inferred.
Humidity/moisture
measurement
 Humidity Sensor
The presence of moisture (water vapor, an invisible gas) in the atmosphere is measured by the
humidity of the air. Humidity and condensation are closely related as condensation inevitably occurs
when the air is saturated with moisture (100% humidity). Absolute humidity measures the amount of
water vapor in air. Grams H2O/m3 of air. This water is a gas, water vapor. Relative humidity measures
the amount of water vapor in air relative to the maximum amount of water vapor the air could hold at
that temperature.

A hygrometer is a sensor that senses the amount of evaporated water in air by a mechanical or
electronic method. A hygrometer is an instrument used for measuring the moisture content in the
atmosphere.
(a) Electrolytic Hygrometer: It utilizes a cell coated with a thin film of phosphorous pentoxide. Which
absorbs water from the sample gas. The cell has a bifilar winding of inert electrodes on a fluorinated
hydrocarbon capillary. Direct voltage applied to the electrodes dissociates the water which is absorbed
by the P2O5 into hydrogen and oxygen. Two electrons are required for electrolyzing each water
molecule and so the current in the cell represents the no. of molecules dissociated. Based on the flow
rate temperature and current yields the humidity in ppm.
 Humidity Sensor
(b) Aluminium oxide hygrometer: It is formed by depositing a layer of aluminum oxide on a
conductive substrate and then coating the oxide with a thin film of gold. The conductive base and
gold layer become the capacitor electrodes and aluminium oxide coating becomes capacitors
dielectric. Water vapor penetrates into the gold layer and is absorbed by the oxidation layer. The no.
of water molecules absorbed determines the impedance of the capacity which is measure of Relative
humidity.
(c) Resistive Hygrometer: These are electrical transducers to measure Relative humidity. Insulative
substrate coated with a lithium chloride solution of a controlled concentration. where salt water
conducts electricity to turn a light on is utilized in a electronic resistive sensor. As humidity decreases,
the salt concentration increases causing the resistivity of the circuit to decrease.

The hygroscopic nature of salt makes it to take up water vapor from the surrounding atmosphere.
Vibration measurement
 Vibration measurement
Vibrations are very commonly encountered in machinery operation, and therefore measurement of the
accelerations associated with such vibrations is extremely important in industrial environments. Vibrations
normally consist of linear harmonic motion that can be
expressed mathematically as:
X= X0 sin (ωt) (1)
where X is the displacement from the equilibrium position at any general point in time, X0 is the peak
displacement from the equilibrium position, and ω is the angular
frequency of the oscillations.
By differentiating equation (1) with respect to time, an expression for the velocity v of the vibrating body at
any general point in time is obtained as:
V= - ωX0 cos (ωt) (2)
Differentiating equation (2) again with respect to time, we obtain an expression for the acceleration, α of the
body at any general point in time as:
α = ω2 X0 sin (ωt) (3)
Inspection of equation (3) shows that the peak acceleration is given by:
α peak = ω2 X0
This square law relationship between peak acceleration and oscillation frequency is the reason why high
values of acceleration occur during relatively low-frequency oscillations.
 Vibration measurement
Acceleration is clearly the best parameter to measure at high frequencies. vibration is usually measured by
accelerometers at all frequencies. The most common type of transducer used is the piezo accelerometer,
which has typical inaccuracy levels of ±2%.
The frequency response of accelerometers is particularly important in vibration measurement in view of the
inherently high-frequency characteristics of the measurement situation.
The only class of device available for measuring acceleration is the accelerometer. The acceleration reading
is obtained from the instrument by measurement of the displacement of the mass within the accelerometer.
 Vibration measurement
Many different displacement measuring techniques are used in the various types of accelerometer that are
commercially available. Different types of accelerometer also vary in terms of the type of spring element
and form of damping used.
• Resistive potentiometers are one such displacement-measuring instrument used in Accelerometers.
• Strain gauges and piezo resistive sensors are also used in accelerometers for measuring accelerations up
to 200g.
• Another displacement transducer found in accelerometers is the LVDT. This device can measure
accelerations up to 700g with a typical inaccuracy of ±1% of full scale
• Accelerometers based on variable inductance displacement measuring devices have extremely good
characteristics and are suitable for measuring accelerations up to 40g.
• The other common displacement transducer used in accelerometers is the piezoelectric type. The major
advantage of using piezoelectric crystals is that they also act as the spring and damper within the
instrument.