MACE 6X021

Experimental Methods
2021-2022
Sensors 1
Choice of Sensors
Sensors
• Sensor : Definition

A device which detects or measures a physical phenomenon

and records, indicates, or otherwise responds to it.

A sensor, therefore, generates an output in response to some physical

phenomenon.
As engineers we measure that output to understand what we are
studying.
Sensors 1 and Sensors 2
• The lectures on sensors have been divided into 2 areas, namely:
• 1. Choice of Sensors
• 2. Use of Sensors

• The first lecture will consider what you need to think about when
selecting a sensor for a certain purpose
• The second lecture will look at how you would use a sensor and what
additional equipment may be needed
Aims
• After the end of this lecture you should:

• Understand that there are many different sensors, even for the same
measurement
• Be familiar with the terminology associated with sensors
• Be aware that most sensors need additional electronics, either as power
supplies and/or controllers as well as amplifiers in order to operate and
generate measurable signals.
• Be aware that additional circuitry or components may be needed to use
sensors effectively (resistors or capacitors… usually on data sheet)
Sensors
• In Engineering we are interested in many different physical properties
or parameters and need to be able to measure them accurately

Pressure sensors Strain gauge Thermocouple IR camera

& Load cell
Sensors
• The aim of this lecture is to give a broad introduction to the different
sensors that are available (there are many thousands) and what you,
as Engineers and researchers, need to be aware of when choosing
them.
• Sensors may
• cover specific ranges (pressures, forces, accelerations)
• have different outputs (voltage, current, digital)
• need addition amplification (loadcell, strain gauge, thermocouple, heat flux)
• need regular calibration (hotwire)
• need excitation (DC or AC voltage)
• be different sizes (may get in the way or not fit)
• have different mounting requirements (mechanical or electronic)
Sensors - Terminology
• When looking at sensors you will come across 2 particular terms.

• Transducer : literally a device that converts an input in one form to an output

in another form, e.g. mechanical or physical to an electrical signal, typically a
voltage.

• Transmitter : a device that transmits a signal that is usually a 4-20mA current.

Sensors - Terminology
• Transducers and Transmitters

• Transducers
• Transducers are voltage-output devices that can be used with simple signal conditioning but are more
sensitive to electromagnetic interference. The electrical resistance of the connecting cable can cause
significant errors if the cable is long. They require three or four connecting wires to supply power and deliver
the output signal.
• Transmitters
• Transmitters are current-output devices and may have two or three wires. Where two wires are used to both
receive power and transmit an output signal, significant cost savings can be made where long cables are
needed. They are frequently scaled to vary from 4 mA to 20 mA as the measured parameter varies from
minimum to maximum.
• http://www.npl.co.uk/reference/faqs/what-is-the-difference-between-a-transducer-and-a-transmitter-(faq-
pressure)
Sensor Use
• Sensors are used in two main ways, as far as the user is concerned.

• For Monitoring – checking parameters in a process to ensure standards are

maintained and/or to optimise performance or to maintain performance or
for safety.
• Manufacturing, production, planes, trains, automobiles, ships, elevators, printers,
photocopiers, health (heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen levels), security (biometrics),
gas sensing (CO, O2)
• But……. how many times are false signals generated? Aircraft diverted due to false
warnings. Cars with tyre pressure sensors giving low pressure warnings.
• Sensors are very important but also something else that can go wrong.

• For Experiments – gathering data for research/testing purposes.

Sensor Use
• In most production and processing scenarios, major factors are
durability, reliability and stability. At the extreme, there are some
sensors that can’t be replaced so they do have to last a lifetime under,
potentially, severe or inaccessible operating conditions.

• Nuclear reactor core temperature sensors.

• Too dangerous to replace
• Sensors on satellites and other intergalactic devices.
• Too far away
Sensors
• Sensors are used to measure many different physical properties
• Pressure
• Force, acceleration
• Temperature
• Velocity
• Position, distance, displacement
• Angle
• Sound intensity or pressure
• Light intensity
• Contamination/particulates
Sensors : Physics
• Sensors use many different physical phenomena in order to generate
a useful output.
• Pressure acting on materials in pressure sensors
• Force acting on materials in force and acceleration sensors
• Magnetic field strength in distance measurements
• EM radiation
• IR for thermal measurements
• IR laser for distance measurements
• IR LED for pulse generation in encoders
• Capacitance in distance and pressure measurements
• Eddy currents in distance measurements
Sensors : Physics
• Induced voltages in LVDTs
• Heat transfer in flow velocity or pressure measurements
• Thermoelectric effects in temperature measurements
• Resistance changes in strain gauges, platinum RTD temperature sensors, hot
wires, thermistors, position sensors
• Ionising radiation in smoke detectors
Heat transfer to measure pressure?
• A patented technique called CMOSens

Temperature difference across the sensor

element can be directly related to the flow
velocity.
The flow velocity, through geometry, is directly
related to a pressure difference across the sensor.

An accurate way of measuring low pressures.

https://www.sensirion.com/en/about-us/technology/cmosens-technology-for-gas-flow/
Sensor Output
• The output of the sensor may vary linearly with the input or the
variation may be non-linear. Some devices have both depending on
the configuration and the internal electronics/processing.

Bigger voltage
change at low
pressures

https://www.sensirion.com/fileadmin/user_upload/customers/sensirion/Dokumente/8_Differential_Pressure/Sensirion_Differential_Pressure_Sensors_SDP8xx
_Analog_Datasheet_0v4.pdf
Sensors
• A company like Digikey (digikey.co.uk) has vast listings of different types of
sensor and nearly 150,000 items
• There are other many other companies (RS Components, Farnell, Mouser)
Sensors – Surface mount devices
• In modern electronics, devices are small and can be difficult to
connect to. It is possible to buy the sensor already fitted onto a
breakout board so it is easier to use. Many manufacturers also sell
Evaluation boards where a device is mounted on a board.
Features

ADXL335 3-axis Accelerometer

On-board 3.3V Voltage Regulator
2.5mm spacing Supply Voltage 3.3V - 6V
Analog voltage output centered at 1.65V
Suitable for connection to 5V and 3.3V systems

http://www.hobbytronics.co.uk/sensors/accelerometer/adxl335-breakout
Sensors
• There are a large number of other manufacturers of specialist sensors
who do not sell their goods through 3rd party suppliers like Digikey or
RS Components or Farnell.

• Dantec and TSI : flow measuring equipment (hotwire, LDA, PIV)

• Omega : general flow/force measurement
Sensors
• There are many other manufacturers specialising in particular areas
• Heat transfer/temperature measurements
• Hukseflux
• greenTEG
• Rhopoint
• Load Cells/forces
• ATI-IA
• Aerodynamic test equipment
• Aerotech ATE
Sensors
• When we do any experiment we need to select appropriate sensors.
• Understand the data we are likely to obtain, i.e. the range of values expected.
• Analytical or CFD information may be useful as well as any background
experience or other knowledge.

• Get a sensor that goes beyond the range of expected data

• But ensure the range isn’t too high
• Measuring 900kg on a 1000kg load cell is better than measuring 900kg on a
10000kg load cell.
Sensor Measurement range
• Match the sensor to the experiment where possible.

Effective use of sensor

Output
Bad use of sensor

Maximum experimental
data value

0 900 1000
0 900 10000
Measurement range of sensor
Sensor Measurement Range
• If you look for pressure sensors or force sensors or accelerometers,
amongst other devices, you will find a number of different devices
that cover different measurement ranges.

• Because the possible measurement range is very wide it is not

possible for one sensor to cover all ranges.
• Masses from a feather (grammes) to a truck (tonnes)
• Pressures from ventilation (a few Pa) to hydraulic systems (atmospheres)
Force Sensors
• Digikey, for example, have loadcells with
maximum loads ranging from 0.3kg to
22680kg.
• If you wanted to measure a load of, say
100kg, there would be no point buying a
loadcell with a range of 1000kg because
you would only be using 10% of its range.
• Usually a loadcell measures a single
component of load and a balance
measures more than one.
Force Sensors
• But…… the measurement range must include any “dead weight”. If
you’re measuring a 100kg variation on something with a mass of
500kg then a 1000kg load cell would be more appropriate because of
the total load not just the load of interest.

• This is an important point when designing experiments. The presence

of a model, or rig or other equipment can have an effect on the range
of what you are measuring, especially if it is loads such as masses or
forces.
Pressure Sensors
• With pressure sensors it is more
complicated.
• There are different units, Pa, kPa, psi,
mbar, bar, inch H2O, mmHg.
• Pressure may be gauge or absolute
• The minimum pressure measurable
is usually -101kPa (vacuum)
• Maximum pressure (on Digikey) is
20kpsi
• On digikey.com there are nearly
9000 different pressure sensors
Pressure Sensors
• Care needs to be taken when using pressure sensors, especially when
they are connected to long tubes.
• There are two problems that can arise
• Damping of any pressure fluctuations
• The tube, along with the viscosity of the fluid, will reduce higher frequency components.
Long and small diameter tubes will have the biggest effect.
• Loss of the pressure or delay in measurement.
• It can take time for a change in pressure to travel along the tube.

• Where possible, have the pressure sensor within 2 or 3m of the

measurement point with small diameter tubing (<1mm ID).
Pressure Sensors
• An important factor needs to be considered when looking at pressure
sensors, and some other devices.
• When measuring a pressure difference using a pressure sensor it may
be at a high background pressure. For example an experiment may
look at a low flow rate in a pressure vessel where the background
pressure is 20 or 30 bar but the pressure difference is only 100 or
200Pa.
• In this situation you can’t use any transducer rated to 200 or 500Pa
because the 20 or 30 bar pressure will destroy it.
Pressure Sensors
• In this case, the background pressure is known as a Common Mode
pressure, and when selecting a device, this pressure also needs to be
considered.

• Why not just use two 20 or 30 bar transducers and measure the
difference between them?

?
Distance Sensors
• Sensors that measure distances, for example Capacitance or Eddy
current sensors, have models with different measurement ranges.

Larger sensors measure longer distances

Sensors
• It is important to understand the specifications that come with
different devices.

• It is easy to choose the wrong device if you do not understand

• how it works (power, control, response time),
• what its measurement range is (units, absolute or relative)
• what its output is (analog voltage or current, digital, PWM)
Sensor Terminology
• Visit a manufacturer’s website and you may be
presented with a range of different possibilities.
• Basic, compensated, amplified….
• Sensors and Transmitters
• Media Compatibility (dry gas, liquid, etc)

• You need to understand what these mean.

• http://www.first-sensor.com/en/products/pressure-sensors/pressure-
sensors-and-transmitters/
Terminology - Pressure Sensors

Type Output Corrections Cost

Basic Low voltage None Cheapest

0-100mV
Compensated Low voltage For temperature
0-100mV variations
Amplified Medium voltage None
0-5V
Compensated and Medium voltage For temperature Most expensive
Amplified 0-5V variations
Interval – Sensor Demonstrations
• Analogue
• Load Cell –Phidgets 780g using Datum Electronics 132 load cell amplifier
• Thermocouples – K type thermocouple and AD595 amplifiers
• Digital
• Pressure sensor – Omron D6F-PH0505AD3 +/-50Pa
• Pressure sensor – Sensirion SDP600 +/-125Pa
• Encoder – Bourns EMS22Q51 incremental encoder
Sensors in Use
• Measuring Thrust on a propeller (ATI-IA balance) and RPM (Hall effect
sensor and magnet)
Hall effect Balance
sensor

Magnet on motor
casing
Results
Video
• https://youtu.be/MlAaVwgDDxw
Ratiometric Devices
• You may see the term ratiometric used with certain sensors.

• What it means is that the output voltage is proportional to the input

voltage. For some devices like loadcells it is implicit in the output
specifications of the device that are in terms of mV/V, i.e. the output
mV depends on the input V.
• This is important in experiments.
• If the power supply changes then the output of the sensor will change.
• You need to keep the power supply at a known and constant level.
Amplification
• Some sensors generate very small voltage outputs, for example
thermocouples and strain gauges – a component of load cells – and
the output needs amplifying to a level that can be read by a data
acquisition system.
• A thermocouple output is typically in the range of 10-60µV/K
• A strain gauge changes resistance due to deformation and in a
loadcell the output is typically a few mV. Because loadcells are
resistive the output is proportional to the input voltage
Load Cell Amplifiers
• Full bridge (4-wire) load cell amplifier.
• http://www.datum-electronics.co.uk/products/type-131-load-cell-amplifier/

Note the mV/V specification.

This is the maximum output of the load cell per volt
at the rated load.
2mV/V with a 15V supply would have an output of
30mV at the maximum load of 300kg.
Heat Flux Sensor Amplifier
• The output from a heat flux
sensor is small, e.g.
22µV/W/m2
• So 1kW/m2 -> 22mV
• Many industrial panel
meters are designed to be
used with small voltages
and internal scaling can
convert volts to physical
units
Sensor Excitation
• “Excitation”, when referred to sensors, is the voltage that is supplied
to the sensor to make it work.

• Some sensors can use a standard DC power supply or even batteries.

• Other sensors need special and specific power supplies in order to

operate.
• Capacitance or eddy current
• Pressure or force
Sensors and Controllers
• Eddy current and Capacitive sensors
Sensors and Controllers
• Dynamic pressure, force and acceleration sensors
Steady State or Dynamic Measurements?
• When considering the design of an experiment, you need to consider
the type of data that will be obtained and how quickly a certain
parameter may be changing.

• In certain experiments, for example the oscillations in a large

structure, it may only be necessary to gather data once a second and
in other experiments you may need to gather at megasamples per
second when parameters are changing very rapidly and/or the
experiment is of a very short duration and you need sufficient
temporal resolution.
Piezoresistive and Piezoelectric sensors
• Dynamic sensors need to react very quickly and one method that is
used by manufacturers is to use a piezo material, i.e. a material that
changes or generates an output when compressed.

• A piezoresistive device contains a semiconductor type material that changes

its resistance when put under load.
• A piezoelectric device contains a quartz type material that generates an
electrical charge when compressed. This can ONLY be used with dynamic
pressures or forces or accelerations because the charge gradually dissipates
so the output from a steady load will decrease with time.
Sensor Outputs
• Sensors generally fall into 3 different groupings

• Analogue transmitter – analogue current output

• Analogue transducer – analogue voltage output
• Digital transducer – digital output
Analogue Transmitter
• Analogue transmitters can be considered as “industrial” devices
where there is a standard output across all types of different sensor
to match with the main industrial instrumentation standard of 4-
20mA.

• There are a number of historical reasons why 4-20mA is used and

they are covered elsewhere. The main thing to note is the 4mA. Why
not a range of 0-20mA instead of 4-20mA?
Voltage Based Sensors
• Many sensors that are used generate a voltage output.

• Pressure sensors may have outputs like 0-33mV, 0-50mV, 0-100mV

and others may have outputs like 0-5V, 1-6V, 0.5-4.5V. There is a lot
less standardisation compared to 4-20mA devices

• Load cells have outputs in the mV range and may need amplification
• Thermocouples have outputs in the µV range and may need
amplification.
Voltage Based Sensors
• When thinking about experiments where you are going to do data
acquisition it is important to realise that, ideally, all the sensors you
use should generate a voltage in the same range.
• In a DAQ system it is not a good idea to measure small voltages (mV)
in the same set-up as larger voltage (V). In many DAQ systems you
can’t alter the measurement range from channel to channel.

• This may mean that you need to amplify certain sensors, or rethink
your DAQ system.
Digital Sensors
• With modern micro electronics there are an increasing number of
sensors that are digital rather than analog.

• Digital sensors convert any analog voltage to a digital signal within the
device itself and then the data is transferred over a data bus to a
controller computer or other acquisition system.

• With digital sensors there are a number of different standards, e.g.

I2C, SPI, CanBUS, Wireless Bluetooth and each operate differently.
Digital Sensors
• The disadvantage with digital sensors is that you also need access to
the appropriate data bus, through suitable hardware, to read the
output from the sensors.

• The myRIO can communicate with I2C and SPI devices.

• Arduino devices can also communicate with I2C and SPI devices.
• There are many other microprocessor/microcontroller devices that
can communicate with I2C, SPI and other digital protocols.
Digital Sensors
• Digital sensors are addressed individually, either through their own ID
code or on an individual address line.

• This is a major limitation on the number of devices you can use,

particularly of the same type, because there are limited addresses for
the devices or limited data lines on a DAQ system.
Why 4mA?
• There are a number of reasons relating to the transition, in the 1950s,
from pneumatic devices to electronic devices, but one main one is
that if the zero value was 0mA you had no guarantee that the sensor
was working. 0mA would be there if the sensor was broken or there
was a broken wire. Seeing 4mA was a good indicator that everything
was working OK.
• If you have a large factory you may have to walk a long way to check a sensor.
• The same reasoning could be applied to devices with output voltages
that were non-zero, so a 0.5-4.5V output is a good indicator of the
device being “live” if the voltage wasn’t 0V.
Summary
• This lecture has introduced you to a number of different aspects of
choosing a sensor
• There are many different types of sensor that are available for different types
of measurements
• Additional equipment may be needed to operate them that may cost more
than the sensors themselves.
• There can be different data outputs, voltage, current and digital
• There are a number of different options or parameters that are important
when choosing sensors
• Datasheets are important and provide a lot of useful information
• There are different suppliers of sensors
Summary
• Sensors for a particular measurement may have different packaging or
different mounting arrangements or be different sizes. This can be very
important when designing a test rig.
• If you do not understand all the information relating to sensors, you can buy
the wrong device, you can find it doesn’t fit, if it’s a surface mount device
(SMD) you may not be able to solder it, if it has the wrong output you may
not be able to measure it.
• Sensors may have lead times of days, weeks or even months.