MSc Structural Engineering

Seismic Engineering and Practical Applications of FE

CRN 32899

Module Notes
Stiffness Method
Notes

2
 Fundamentals of Stiffness Method and Finite Element Analysis

1.1 Fundamentals of Structural Analysis

For Static analysis we need to satisfy the following criteria:

a) Equilibrium - Forces on the structure must balance

b) Compatibility - Displacements/strains must be compatible (i.e. displacements at a joint between two

connected members will be identical - by virtue that they are joined !)

c) Stress-strain Relationship - i.e. elastic, plastic, non-linear etc.

d) Boundary Conditions - external applied loading/restraints.

The application of the above is best illustrated with a simple example:

EXAMPLE 1.1:

A system of two bars is shown in figure 1.

Bar A
2
20mm Area A = 40mm

2
Area B = 10mm

30mm F
Bar B

Figure 1

Assume: F = 10000N EA = EB = 2x105 N/mm2

Consider each bar separately:

FA FB dB

dA

FA
FB

Figure 2
3
a) Equilibrium

At the junction FA - F B = F ……….. (1)

i.e. Internal forces = External Force

b) Compatibility

A + B = 0 ……….. (2)

c) Stress v Strain

 = E

This can be re-written as :

F δ FL
E or δ
A L EA
where 'L' is length and 'A' is area.

Hence for each bar:

FA  20 FA
δA   ………….(3)
2  10  40 4  10 5
5

FB  30 3  FB
δB   ………..(4)
2  10  10 2  10 5
5

Equations (1), (2), (3), and (4) now provide the solution. Substituting (3) and (4) into (2) gives

FA 3FB
 0
4  10 5
2  10 5

FA  6FB  0

Substituting in (1) gives:

10000
 6FB  FB  10000N  FB   N
7

60000
Hence FA  N
7

60000 3
Also δA   mm
7  (4  10 ) 140
5

 10000  3 3
and δB   mm
7  (2  10 )
5
140

4
Notes: (i) Equilibrium, compatibility, and stress-strain relationships have been used directly to calculate the
displacements. Boundary condition have been imposed by assuming all displacement occurs at the
junction of the bars, i.e. the ends are fixed.

(ii) The force and displacement in bar B are in the opposite direction to that drawn i.e. they are
negative as noted.

1.2 A First Finite Element (Stiffness Method) Model

If we consider a spring we write:

Force = Stiffness x Displacement (i.e. F = kx)

Now
 = E (in 1-dimension)

This can be rewritten as:

F x
E
A l
Rearrange:

EA
xF
l
Therefore we can identify the stiffness of a rod/bar system as EA/l. Thus we can solve the previous example using
a spring analogy:

For Bar A

2  10 5 N/mm 2  40mm 2
kA   4  10 5 N/mm
20mm
For Bar B

2  10 5 N/mm 2  10mm 2 2
kB    10 5 N/mm
30mm 3

Our model now becomes 2 springs thus:

F1
x1
kA F2
x2
kB F3
x3

1 2 3
The points 1,2,and 3 represent the ends of the springs which we will call nodes. If the displacements at the nodes
in the positive (i.e. to the right) direction are x1, x2 and x3 and the forces at the nodes are F1, F2 and F3 then we can
write the forces in terms of the stiffness and displacements as follows:

5
 F1  k A (x1  x 2 )

F2  k A (x 2  x1 )  k B (x 2  x 3 )

F3  k B (x 3  x 2 )

This can be written in matrix form as:

 F1   k A  kA 0  x1 
    
F2    k A kA  kB  k B  x 2 
F   0  kB k B   x 3 
 3 

i.e. Force Matrix = Stiffness Matrix  Displacement Matrix

This matrix equation is typical of all equations in solid/structural mechanics relating to the stiffness method (very
basic beginnings of the 'finite element' method).

One feature of this stiffness matrix is that it is symmetrical about the leading diagonal. Another feature is that it is
singular. This can be checked by adding the three lines together. As they all become zero this implies singularity.
In physical terms this singularity corresponds to rigid body motion. Because there is no fixing point the body can
take any position in space. This singularity can therefore be removed by giving a node a displacement of zero (i.e.
introduce a boundary condition).

In this case, to correspond with the previous example we want to give nodes 1 and 3 a displacement of zero (to fix
them).

Before solving for the displacement we also need to identify the forces. In this case F1 is the reaction R1, F2 is the
applied force of 10kN and F3 is the reaction R3.

Hence we can write:

 R1  4 4 0  0 
  5  
10000  10  4 14/3  2/3 x 2 
 R   0  2/3 2/3   0 
 3 

Expanding the second line gives:

14 2
10000  10 5 (4  0  x 2   0)
3 3

3
x2  mm
140
We can also determine the reactions thus

3
R 1  10 5 (4  0  4   0  0)
140

60000
R1   N
7
The negative sign implies that it acts in the opposite direction to that drawn.

6
Also

2 3 2
R 3  10 5 (0  0     0)
3 140 3

10000
R3   N
7
Discussion

By means of these examples the basic ideas of equilibrium, compatibility, stress-strain and boundary conditions
have been illustrated in 1 dimension (1 DOF).

The physical model has been replaced by an analogous spring model which illustrates many of the features we
shall see later, e.g. a symmetrical stiffness matrix and the need to impose boundary conditions to remove rigid
body movement.

1.3 Global Stiffness Matrix, Assembly and Solution

The last section examined a 2 spring system and solved the displacement and reactions. Let us now examine a 4
spring system:

F1
x1
kA F2
x2
kB F3
x3
kC F4
x4
kD F5
x5

1 2 3 4 5

Let the stiffness in the springs be:

kA = 1 kB = 2 kC = 3 kD = 4

(Note: The units are not specified here. If we write F = kx, then provided we use consistent units there is no
problem. For example N = N/mm x mm).

For a spring A we can write the associated internal forces like so:

A
F1 A
x1
kA F2
x2

1 2

F1A  k A (x1  x 2 )

F2A  k A (x 2  x1 )

This can be written in matrix form as:

F1A   k A  k A  x1 
 A    
F2   k A k A  x 2 

7
Similarly we can write equations for the other springs. For example, consider spring B.

For this case we obtain:

B
F2 B
x2
kB F3
x3

2 3

F2B   k B  k B  x 2 
 B    
F3   k B k B   x 3 

and so on.

These matrices are known as the ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRICES

It can be seen that these matrices represent a set of linear equations and hence we can add them together. This
gives:

 F1A   k A  kA 0 0 0  x1 
 A B 
F2  F2   k A kA  kB  kB 0 0  x 2 
 
F3  F3    0  kB kB  kC  kC 0  x 3 
B C

F C  F D   0 0  kC kC  kD

 k D  x 4 
 4 4    
 F5   0
D
0 0  kD k D   x 5 

If we consider node 2, then at that node 2 internal forces act, i.e. F2A and F2B . The sum of these 2 forces equals
the external force acting at the node, i.e. F2. Thus we can rewrite this matrix equation as:

F1   k A  kA 0 0 0  x1 
  
F2   k A kA  kB  kB 0 0  x 2 
 
F3    0  kB kB  kC  kC 0  x 3 
F   0 0  kC kC  kD

 k D  x 4 
 4   
F5   0 0 0  kD k D   x 5 

This is known as the GLOBAL STIFFNESS MATRIX

If we examine this matrix we can see:

1) It is comprised of the element stiffness matrices.

2) It is singular: the sum of all the rows equals zero.
3) It is symmetric (about the leading diagonal).
4) There are many zero terms.

All these features hold for any global stiffness matrix.

General Solution

The matrix is singular and hence before solution we have to remove the singularity, i.e. apply boundary conditions.

In this case let us assume that node 1 is fixed in space i.e. x1=0

8
This allows us to partition the matrix, removing the first row and column (all terms from first column of the stiffness
matrix will disappear as x1 = 0, and the first row yields F1=kA x2 which can be computed easily once the x2 term has
been found).

The partitioned matrix becomes:

F2  k A  k B  kB 0 0  x 2 
F    k kB  kC  kC 0   x 3 
 3 
 
B
 
F4   0  kC kC  kD  k D  x 4 
F5   0 0  kD

k D   x 5 

We will now assume that a load of ‘2’ units is applied at node 5, i.e. F5 = 2. Substituting the values specified for kA -
--> kD gives:

0  3  2 0 0  x 2 
0  2 5  3 0   x 
     3 
 
0  0  3 7  4 x 4 
2  0 
0  4 4   x 5 

This system can now be solved using Gaussian Elimination performed on the force and stiffness matrices (forming
a diagonal of '1's')

Step 1. Divide top row by 3 and add 2 x first row to the second row

0 1  2/3 0 0
0 0 11/3  3 0
0 0 3 7 4
2 0 0 4 4

Step 2. Multiply second row by 3/11 and add 3 x second row to the third row

0 1  2/3 0 0
0 0 1  9/11 0
0 0 0 50/11  4
2 0 0 4 4

Step 3. Multiply third row by 11/50 and add 4 x third row to the fourth row

0 1  2/3 0 0
0 0 1  9/11 0
0 0 0 1 - 44/50
2 0 0 0 24/50

We can now back substitute to find the displacements:

x5 = 100/24 = 4.167

x4 - (44/50)x5 = 0 -----> x4 = 3.67

ETC......
9
SUMMARY

The preceding example has shown how:

1) The element stiffness matrices can be added to form a global stiffness matrix.

2) How boundary conditions have to be applied before a solution is possible

3) How the problem can be solved by Gaussian Elimination.

What happens if the node numbering is different?

As an example consider the numbering system below:

kA kB kC kD
1 3 5 4 2

for the left most spring we can now write:

A
F1 A
x1
kA F3
x3

1 3

F1A  k A (x1  x 3 )

F3A  k A (x 3  x1 )

We can now write similar equations for the other springs and then assemble the element stiffness matrices into the
global stiffness matrix to obtain:

F1   k A 0 - kA 0 0  x1 
  
F2   0 kD 0 - kD 0  x 2 
 
F3   - k A 0 kA  kB 0 - k B  x 3 
F   0 - kD 0 kC  kD

 k C  x 4 
 4   
F5   0 0 - kB  kC k B  k C   x 5 

Note: It must be noted that the values of x and F correspond to the new model. For example, x2 now corresponds
to the displacement at the right hand end.

Again we have a singular matrix and we have to apply boundary conditions to obtain a solution. So letting x1 = 0
and substituting for kA --> kD gives

2   4 0  4 0  x 2 
0  0
   3 0  2  x 3 
    
0  4 0 7  3  x 4 
0  0  2  3 5   x 5 

10
This is now solved by Gaussian Elimination

Step 1. Divide top row by 4 and add 4 x first row to the third row

1/2 1 0 1 0
0 0 3 0 2
2 0 0 3 3
0 0 2 3 5

Step 2. Divide second row by 3 and add 2 x second row to the fourth row

1/2 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0  2/3
2 0 0 3 3
0 0 0  3 11/3

Step 3. Divide the third row by 3 and add 3 x third row to the fourth row

1/2 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0  2/3
2/3 0 0 1 1
2 0 0 0 2/3

Back substitution now gives:

x5 = 3 x4 = 3.67 x3 = 2 x2 = 4.0625

These are identified with their nodes below:

2 3 3.67 4.0625
kA kB kC kD
1 3 5 4 2

Comments

1. It can be seen that the displacements obtained are independent of the node numbering system. (If this
were not the case the method would not be satisfactory).

2. Numerically it can be shown that less computations are required for a smaller bandwidth. Bandwidth is a
measure of the furthest distance from the main diagonal to a non-zero term in any row

This is illustrated for the two global stiffness matrices:

 3 2 0 0 4 0 4 0 
 2 5  3 0   0 3 0  2
 & 
 0  3 7  4   4 0 7  3
   
0 0 4 4   0 2 3 5 

Thus a different numbering system gives a different bandwidth.

11
3. When these simultaneous equations are solved using a computer, the 'core' of the matrix is stored for use
in the solution, therefore a larger bandwidth will generally require more solution time to solve.

A reasonable approximation is that the solution time is given by:

TIME  (Bandwidth)2 x (Number of Equations)

1.4 Multiple Load Cases

Often a body (structure)may be subjected to a series of different Load cases. For example a structure may be
analysed for loads on different parts and for dynamic loading (wind for example).

These can be analysed very economically by having different load vectors on the LHS. For example consider the
case of the spring with a Load at a point other than the end.

1 1 1 1
kA kB kC kD
1 2 3 4 5

If a unit load is applied at each node we can evaluate each case by having 4 LHS load vectors.

1 0 0 0 3 2 0 0
0 1 0 0 2 5 3 0
0 0 1 0 0 3 7 4
0 0 0 1 0 0 4 4

4 Load Vectors Global Stiffness Matrix (Partitioned)

This is solved by the same procedure as above but dealing with each load vector separately.

Step 1

1/3 0 0 0 1  2/3 0 0
2/3 1 0 0 0 11/3  3 0
0 0 1 0 0 3 7 -4
0 0 0 1 0 0 4 4

Step 2

1/3 0 0 0 1  2/3 0 0
2/11 3/11 0 0 0 1  9/11 0
6/11 9/11 1 0 0 0 50/11 - 4
0 0 0 1 0 0 4 4

Step 3

12
 1/3 0 0 0 1  2/3 0 0
2/11 3/11 0 0 0 1  9/11 0
6/50 9/50 11/50 0 0 0 1 - 44/50
24/50 36/50 44/50 1 0 0 0 24/50

We can now back substitute for each load vector. Numbering the load vectors 1-->4 from left to right gives

Load Vector 1

24/50x5 = 24/50 x5 = 1

x4 - 44/50x5 = 6/50 x4 = 1
x3 - 9/11x4 = 2/11 x3 = 1
x2 - 2/3x3 = 1/3 x2 = 1

Load Vector 2

24/50x5 = 36/50 x5 = 1.5

x4 - 44/50x5 = 9/50 x4 = 1.5
x3 - 9/11x4 = 3/11 x3 = 1.5
x2 - 2/3x3 = 0 x2 = 1.0

Load Vector 3

24/50x5 = 44/50 x5 = 1.833

x4 - 44/50x5 = 11/50 x4 = 1.833
x3 - 9/11x4 = 0 x3 = 1.5
x2 - 2/3x3 = 0 x2 = 1.0

Load Vector 4

24/50x5 = 1 x5 = 2.083

x4 - 44/50x5 = 0 x4 = 1.833
x3 - 9/11x4 = 0 x3 = 1.5
x2 - 2/3x3 = 0 x2 = 1.0

Comments

1. In practice the majority of computing time is spent on solving the stiffness matrix and the additional time for
many load vectors is small

2. The results of the individual load cases can be added to each other if required.

3. This is only true for LINEAR problems.

13
 Stiffness Method of Structural Analysis - Frameworks
Recap

If sufficient degrees of freedom are chosen to fully define the deformation of the
structure, then the stiffness matrix [K] can be found by simple procedures (also
computer programmable). This is true for both statically determinate and
indeterminate structures.

If the load vector [P] is known, the displacement vector [x] is obtained by solving the
simultaneous equations.

[P] = [K][x] (1)

i.e. [x] = [K]-1[P] (2)

This is the primary solution giving us the deformed structure due to [P]. The internal
stress resultants (i.e. axial force 'N', shear force 'S', and bending moment 'M') can then
be obtained by simple programmable procedure.

Example: Pin-Jointed Plane Framework

A joint loaded pin-jointed plane framework carries axial load only in its component
members (elements). The deformation is fully defined if two end displacements in the
x and y directions of each free joint are known. Thus for the pin-jointed framework in
fig.1, we can use d1, d2, d3, and d4 as shown in fig. 2 (thus if each joint position is
known, we can assume that the members remain straight and uniformly stretch and
contract to fit the joint positions). Consider also 4 'corresponding' forces acting on the
structure, P1, P2, P3, and P4

10 kN

3 a 1

e c

b 3m

4 d
3m 2

Figure 1

Notation: E = 200kN/mm2

Areaa = Areab=Areae = 500 mm2

Areac=Aread = 750 mm2

1
14
 d2 P2

d1 P1

d4 P4

d3 P3

Figure 2a Figure 2b

Direct Calculation of the stiffness matrix:

Suppose forces P1 to P4 are arranged so that d1=1.0, and d2=d3=d4=0 as in fig.3. The
forces will be the stiffness coefficients k11, k21, k31, k41 as shown. These external
forces are in equilibrium with the internal axial forces N produced by the extensions
of the members ().

k 21 (=P2)
1.0
a k 11 (=P1)

e
c
b

d k 31 (=P3)

k 41 (=P4)

Figure 3

1.0
o
45
c
c

Figure 4

2
15
Thus

a = 1.0, c =1.0 cos(45) = 0.707

b = 0 (NB: Not strictly true but magnitude of b is 2nd order small)

d = e = 0

We know that for a bar with axial load, the extension and axial force are related as
follows:

EAΔ
N
l

Therefore the axial loads in each of the members becomes (see fig. 5):

200  10 9  500  10 6  1.0

Na   33.33  10 3 kN
3.0
200  10  750  10 6  0.707
9
Nc   25  10 3 kN
3.0 2
Nb  Ne  Nd  0

k 21

33.33 1 k 11
.0

0
25

0 2 k 31

k 41

Figure 5

The external forces are found by considering equilibrium of joints (as for the usual
method of calculation:

i.e. at Joint 1

  33.33  10 3  25.0 cos(45)  10 3  k11  0  k11  51.01  10 3 kN / m

  25.0 sin( 45)  10 3  k 21  0  k 21  17.68  10 3 kN / m

(NB: Dimensions of k)

3
16
At Joint 2

 k 31  0

 k 41  0

Hence the first column of the stiffness matrix [k] has been produced.

By prescribing a unit displacement for the remaining degrees of freedom the

remaining components of the stiffness matrix can be found as shown in Table 1:

Table 1: Extracted from 'Linear Analysis of Frameworks' by T.R.Graves Smith

4
17
Thus:

51.01 17.68 0 0 
17.68 51.01 0  33.33
[k ]     10 3 kN / m
 0 0 61 .79  11 .79 
 
 0  33.33  11.79 45.12 

Note that this matrix is symmetrical.

Load Vector

Fig.6 shows the loading for this problem again (also see fig 1.)

Only one load is non-zero: P2  10  10 3 N (opposite direction to d2)

 0 
 10.0
[ P]     10 3
 0 
 
 0 

Solution

Solution of [k][d]=[P] gives

 0.183 
  0.527 
d     mm
  0.078 
 
  0.410 

See fig.7 for the deformation of the framework (exaggerated)

5
18
Internal Forces

These can be obtained by considering the results in table 5.1

Hence, for this configuration of loading and displacement:

N a  33.33  10 6 d1  6.09kN
N b  33.33  10 6 d 2  33.33  10 6 d 4  3.91kN
N c  25.0  10 d1  25.0  10 d 2
6 6
 8.61kN
N d  50.0  10 d 3
6
 3.91kN
N e  16.67  10 d 3  16.67  10 6 d 4
6
 5.53kN

These are shown in fig. 8 :

Assembly of the Global stiffness matrix [k] using member/element stiffnesses

Direct calculation of [k] is structure oriented - i.e. it depends strongly on structural

configuration. Therefore in this form it is difficult to program. Considering individual
member siffnesses provides a logical construction which lends itself to programming.

6
19
Recap - Member coordinate systems and stiffness matrix.

A pin jointed framework is simply an assemblage of pin ended bar elements

analogous to previous work. For this problem, a member will be defined by an axial
coordinate xm running from end 1 to end 2 where end 1 is connected to the joint with
the lower global number, end 2 to the joint with the higher global number (figs. 9 and
10)

Member stiffness matrix

Recap - consider the stiffness of an individual member 'm' treated as a free body. The
deformation is described by two degrees of freedom dm1 and dm2, - one at each end
(fig.11) - called MEMBER DEGREES OF FREEDOM (also called element or local
degrees of freedom). Note, the degrees of freedom at right angles to the member will
not deform the member - they will just alter its orientation.

The corresponding MEMBER FORCES Pm1, and Pm2 act as shown in fig.12.

In the same way as for the whole structure, [Pm] and [dm] are related by the MEMBER
STIFFNESS MATRIX [km] by

[Pm] = [km][dm]

Consider dm1 = 1, dm2=0 (fig. 13)

km11 = Pm1 (where dm1= 1.0, dm2=0)

EA  EA
m = -1.0 Nm  
l l

7
20
Resolving axially at end 1

EA
k m11 
l

Resolving axially at end 2

EA
k m11 
l

Now consider dm2 = 1.0, and dm1 = 0 (fig. 14)

EA EA
m = 1.0 Nm  
l l

 EA EA
 k m12  k m 22 
l l

EA  1.0  1.0
km 
l  1.0 1.0 

8
21
Member Transformation Matrix [tm]

There is a unique relationship between member and global degrees of freedom,

depending on structural geometry and position of the member in the structure. For
example member 'e' in fig. 15

de1 is related to d3 and d4; de2 = 0

From fig. 16

de1 = -d3cos(45) + d4sin(45) de2 = 0

 d1 
 
 d e1  0 0  0.707 0.707  d 2 

d  0 0
 e2   0 0   d 3 
 
d 4 
or [de] = [te][d]

Where [te] is the MEMBER TRANSFORMATION MATRIX for member 'e'. Note
that [te] has the same number of rows as the member degrees of freedom and the same
number of columns as the global degrees of freedom. The equation above represents a
simple geometrical relationship ensuring COMPATIBILITY between the member and
global degrees of freedom. A similar relationship relates the degrees of freedom of a
member m to the global degrees of freedom.

i.e. [dm] = [tm][d]

Hence the transformation matrices for simple frameworks are obtained by inspection.

9
22
Thus from fig. 17, the transformation matrices are:

 1.0 0 0 0 0  1.0 0
t a    t b   
0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  1.0

 0.707  0.707 0 0 0 0  1.0 0

t c    t d   
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

10
23
Assembly of [k] using Member Stiffnesses

Equilibrium between Member and Global Forces

Transformation matrices are also used to express equilibrium between member and
global forces. From fig.18 at joint 2, parts of forces P3 and P4 are in equilibrium with
the force in member e, Pe1. Call these parts P3(e) parts P4(e) .

Detail of joint 2 is shown in fig. 19. This detail is expanded in fig. 20

Considering equilibrium of the axle in fig.20,

 Pe1 cos(45)  P3( e )  0

   Pe1 sin( 45)  P4( e )  0

11
24
  P3( e )  0.707 Pe1
 P4( e )  0.707 Pe1

Also P1( e )  P2( e )  0

 P1( e )   0 0
 (e)  
 P2    0 0  Pe1 

 P3( e )   0.707 0  Pe 2 
 (e)   
 P4   0.707 0

 
 P ( e )  [t e ]T [ Pe ]

The same relationship between global forces [P(m)] and member forces [Pm] holds for
all the members in the framework

Now [ P ]   [ P ( m ) ]
m

[ P ]   [t m ]T [ Pm ]
m
This is a general result applying to all types of framework (i.e. not just pin-jointed). It
expresses the EQUILIBRIUM between the member and global forces.

Assembly of Global stiffness matrix

We require [k] in the formula

[P] = [k][d]
We have:

EA  1  1
[k m ] 
l   1 1 
[Pm] = [km][dm] with

[dm] = [tm][d] with [tm] known from geometry

[pm] = [km][tm][d]

Also we have

P   ([t m ]T [ Pm ])
m

12
25
  [ P ]   ([t m ]T [k m ][t m ][ d ])
m

 
[ P ]   [t m ]T [k m ][t m ][d ]
m 

This equation is called the ASSEMBLY equation

Also this equation is of the form [P]=[k][d]

 
Hence [k ]   ([t m ]T [k m ][t m ]) 
m 

This equation is absolutely general and holds for all stiffness methods where a
structure is split up into members (or elements).

Example, Contribution of Member 'e' to the global stiffness matrix of example 1:

0 0  0.707 0.707 
t e   
0 0 0 0 

 1  1 200  10 9  500  10 6  1  1
k e    EA     1 1 
 l  e  1 1  3 2  

 1  1
23.57  10 6  
 1 1 

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26
t e T k e t e  

 0 0
 0 0 1  1 0 0  0.707 0.707 
 23.57  10 6  N /m
 0.707   0 
0   1 1  0 0 0
 
 0.707 0

 0 0
 0 0 0 0  0.707 0.707 
    23.57  106 N / m
 0.707 0 0 0 0.707  0.707 
 
 0.707 0

0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 
   23.57  10 6 N / m    MN / m
0 0 0.5  0.5 0 0 11.79  11.79
   
0 0  0.5 0.5  0 0  11.79 11.79 

Note that the contribution of member 'e' to [k] is a 4 x 4 matrix - the correct
dimensions of the 4 x 4 global stiffness matrix.

If there are N global degrees of freedom, then the member transformation matrices
have the dimensions [2 x N]

 t m  [k m ][t m ] has the dimensions [N x 2][2 x 2][2 x N]

T

i.e. [N x N] - the correct dimensions of the global stiffness matrix.

The complete stiffness matrix for the structure in example 1 is found by cycling
through the members and adding.

14
27
 15
28
 Programming theStiffness Method for Pin-Jointed Frames ORIGIN := 1

The following Mathcad sheet details the programming steps for any pin jointed frame. There are variations in the
methodology which tend to relate to the programming software used, but Mathcad illustrates the process in a
logical manner. Note that any user input is shown here in greyed boxes.

1. Data Required for 2D Pin-Jointed Frame:

Basic data for the frame needs to be input here. Firstly The number of nodes and number of members needs to
be input. Number ranges are then defined for constructing stiffness matrices etc. Node locations are required,
and a connectivity pattern defined also.

Enter the number of Nodes nn := 4 node range i := 1 , 2 .. nn

Enter the number of Members nm := 5 member range j := 1 , 2 .. nm

DOF range (2 x nn) k := 1 , 2 .. 2 ⋅ nn

Enter the node locations

⎛⎜ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 3 ⎞⎟
x := ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ m y := ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ m
3 0
⎜0⎟ ⎜3⎟
⎜0⎟ ⎜0⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

1.1 Connectivity
The matrix 'CON' defines the connectivity of the elements to the nodes. The first column refers to
the member numbers. The second and third columns correspond to the node numbers to which
the members in the first column are connected to. Remember, insert the lower node number first.

⎛1 1 3⎞
⎜2 1 2
⎟
⎜ ⎟
CON := ⎜ 3 1 4⎟
⎜4 2 4⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝5 2 3⎠

1.2 Section Properties - Young's Moduli and Cross Sectional Areas

Enter the Young's modules 'E' and cross sectional area 'A' values of each Member (note that
the matrix row location refers to the associated member number)

⎛ 500 ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
⎜ 500 ⎟ ⎜ 200 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ 2 ⎜ ⎟ −2
Area := ⎜ 750 ⎟ ⋅ mm E := ⎜ 200 ⎟ ⋅ kN⋅ mm
⎜ 750 ⎟ ⎜ 200 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 500 ⎠ ⎝ 200 ⎠

29
 2. Stiffness Calculations
The stiffness calculations can now proceed logically as per the hand calculations, however all nodes and degrees
of freedom are considered to ensure the procedure is completely general.

2.1 Calculation of member lengths

The length of each member can be calculated simply from Pythagorus, i.e. use the 'x' amd 'y' locations from the
CON matrix.

⎛ 3 ⎞
⎜ 3 ⎟
L :=
2 2 ⎜ ⎟
Lengths
j ⎡⎣x( CONj , 3) − x( CONj , 2)⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣y( CONj , 3) − y( CONj , 2)⎤⎦ L = ⎜ 4.243 ⎟ m
⎜ 3 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4.243 ⎠

2.2 Member Stiffness Matrices

The 2x2 member stiffness matricesare easilt assembled for each member 'j'

E ⋅ Area
j j⎛ 1 −1 ⎞
Stiffness matrices K := ⎜ ⎟
j L
j ⎝ −1 1 ⎠

2.3 Member angles measured from X-axis

Next we need to calculate the angle from the x-axis which each member subtends. this is measured positive in
an anti-clockwise sense. These angles will be required to calculate the transformation matrices

Angles with the x-axis

⎡ ⎡ y( CONj , 3) − y( CONj , 2) ⎤ ⎡ y( CONj , 3) − y( CONj , 2) ⎤⎤

⎢
θ := if x −x ⎢ ⎥ , 180 ⋅ deg − asin⎢ ⎥⎥
j ⎢ ( CONj , 3) ( CONj , 2) > 0 , asin⎢ L ⎥ ⎢ L ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎣ j ⎦ ⎣ j ⎦⎦

⎛ 180 ⎞
⎜ 270 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
Check Member angles: θ = ⎜ 225 ⎟ ⋅ deg
⎜ 180 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 135 ⎠

30
2.4 Transformation matrices

The following code creates 'nm' transformation matrices (2 x 2nn), inserting the cos/sin functions at the
appropriate locations which link local to global degrees of freedom:

t := for z ∈ 1 .. 2 ⋅ nn
j
temp
1, z
← ( j)
cos θ if z = 2 ⋅ CON
j,2
−1

sin( θ ) if z = 2 ⋅ CON
j j,2
0 otherwise
temp
2, z
← ( j)
cos θ if z = 2 ⋅ CON
j,3
−1

sin( θ ) if z = 2 ⋅ CON
j j,3
0 otherwise
temp

Check the matrices :

⎛ −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎞ ⎛ 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎞
t = ⎜ ⎟ t = ⎜ ⎟
1 ⎝ 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎠

⎛ −0.707 −0.707 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎞ ⎛ 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎞
t = ⎜ ⎟ t = ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝ 0 0 0 0 0 0 −0.707 −0.707 ⎠ 4 ⎝ 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 ⎠

⎛ 0 0 −0.707 0.707 0 0 0 0⎞
t = ⎜ ⎟
5 ⎝0 0 0 0 −0.707 0.707 0 0 ⎠

Comparing with the hand calc, you can see that the boundary DOF's are also included. Boundaries conditions
are dealt with later on.

2.5 Assemble Global stiffness matrix

nm
⎛ t T⋅K ⋅t ⎞
Use assembly equation to create global stiffness matrix KG :=
∑ ⎝ j j j⎠
j=1

⎛ 51.011 17.678 0 −0 −33.333 0 −17.678 −17.678 ⎞

⎜ 17.678 51.011 −0 −33.333 0 0 −17.678 −17.678
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 −0 61.785 −11.785 −11.785 11.785 −50 0 ⎟
⎜ −0 −33.333 −11.785 45.118 11.785 −11.785 0 0 ⎟ −1
KG = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ kN⋅ mm
−11.785 11.785 −11.785
⎜ −33.333 0 45.118 0 0
⎟
⎜ 0 0 11.785 −11.785 −11.785 11.785 0 0 ⎟
⎜ −17.678 −17.678 −50 0 0 0 67.678 17.678 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −17.678 −17.678 0 0 0 0 17.678 17.678 ⎠

This matrix is singular at present, boundary conditions will be required to remove the singularity and prevent rigid
body motion

31
2.6 Applied forces

Assemble the Global Force Matrix (force annotation same as for DOF notation)

⎛ 0 ⎞
⎜ −10 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ 0 ⎟
P := ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ kN
⎜ ⎟0
⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠

2.7 Boundary conditions

The following matrix defines the fixity for each degree of freedom. For the variable 'BC' insert a '0' if unrestrained,
insert a '1' if restrained.

⎛0⎞
⎜0⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0⎟
⎜0⎟
BC := ⎜ ⎟
⎜1⎟
⎜1⎟
⎜1⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠

Now remove singularity of global stiffness matrix by adding in a matrix with large stiffness values along the
leading diagonal at locations where the degree of freedom is restrained. Add a stiffness of say 1050 kN/mm:

:= if ⎛ BC = 0 , 0 , 10 ⋅ kN⋅ mm
50 − 1⎞
Matrix to be added: KGBC
k, k ⎝ k ⎠

⎛0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎞
⎜0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ −1
KGBC = ⎜ 0 0 0 0 1 × 10
50
0 0 0 ⎟ ⋅ kN⋅ mm
⎜ 50
⎟
⎜0 0 0 0 0 1 × 10 0 0 ⎟
⎜ 50 ⎟
⎜0 0 0 0 0 0 1 × 10 0 ⎟
⎜ 50 ⎟
⎝0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 × 10 ⎠

Modded global stiffness matrix to include BC's : KGmod := KGBC + KG

32
 3 Solution

3.1 Calculation of Displacements

Normally this is the part of the calculation which requires the solution of simultaneous equations using Gauss
Elimination, and requires the lions share of the programming. Luckily in Mathcad we can calculate the inverse
of the stiffness matrix directly:

⎛ 0.183 ⎞
⎜ −0.527 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
(
d := KGmod )− 1⋅ P ⎜ −0.078 ⎟
⎜ −0.41 ⎟ Compare with the results
d=⎜ ⎟ ⋅ mm from the notes
⎜ 0
⎟
⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠

3.2 Calculation of Member Forces

F := K ⋅ t d
j j j (Fj)2 =
6.09 ⋅ kN
-3.91
-8.613 Note: +ve tension
-3.91 -ve compression

5.529

4. Conclusion

The procedure presented is applicable for any pin jointed frame which is joint loaded. It can be expanded to incorporate
members with more degrees of freedom, i.e. rotational and shear DOF's, and also into 3D structures.

33
 Specific Programming Issues

Member transformation matrix

In the example analysed by hand, the member transformation matrices were determined by
inspection, considering the geometry of the deformation and the relationship between member and
global displacements. Recall that the relationship is given by:

dm = tmd (1)

For programming purposes the transformation matrices need to be generated in a general manner
from the input data.

Suppose a particular member connects joints i and j in a framework as shown in figure 1.

d 2j d m2

j d 2j-1
y

d 2i dm1

d 2i-1 x
i

Figure 1

We shall assume that i is the lower joint number so that end 1 of the member is connected to i and
end 2 is connected to j. The global degrees of freedom at each end are respectively d2i-1, d2i and d2j-1,
d2j, and the member degrees of freedom are the axial displacements dm1 and dm2 as shown. If the
joint i moves to a new position defined by particular displacements d2i-1, d2i, it is apparent from the
geometry of figure 2 that:

dm1 = cos(θ)d2i-1+sin(θ)d2i (2)

d m1
d2i x
d2i-1
Figure 2

34
In matrix form,



 = cos sin  


(3)

A similar relationship exists between the member and global displacements at end 2. Thus



 = cos sin   


(4)

Hence, putting these together:


 
cos sin 0 0


 =   

0 0 cos sin   
(5)

 

The matrix containing the trigonometric functions is called the condensed member transformation
matrix, and is usually written as tm’. However the required transformation matrix tm relates the
member displacements to all of the global displacements. In fact tm can be obtained from (5) above
noting that the displacements of a member are independent of the displacements of the joints to
which it is unattached. So if we compare (5) with (1), this leads to:

0 0 …cos sin ….. 0 0 … 0

 =  
0 0 … 0 0 …… cos sin … 0
(6)

2i-1 2i 2j-1 2j

This clearly illustrates where the trig functions are located in the transformation matrix.

Boundary Conditions

When compared to the hand calculation, it can be seen that the stiffness matrix includes the DOF’s
at the boundaries, so this now needs to be addressed. Referring to each degree of freedom, a ‘flag’
needs to be defined as to whether it is unrestrained or restrained. In the case of the program in
hand, a ‘0’ is used for unrestrained and a ‘1’ is used for a restrained boundary.

If we think about the stiffness relationship P=kd in matrix form, we can force the DOF’s at the
boundaries to be zero by specifying an extremely large stiffness in the appropriate location in the
matrix. Hence on the leading diagonal, at the row and column location which corresponds to a
boundary DOF, we require a very large stiffness value. So we can either create a new matrix of the
same order as the stiffness matrix which contains large stiffnesses on the leading diagonal at
approapriate boundary locations, then add that in, or specify large multipliers for the existing terms
on the leading diagonal of the existing stiffness matrix.

For ease of programming the former method has been used. Note that in the Mathcad example
fixed boundaries have been assumed in the example. It is possible to incorporate spring supports by
indroducing appropriate stiffnesses along the leading diagonal (rather than arbitrarily large ones).

35
Solution

Normally the solution process requires significant programming to solve the simultaneous
equations. Gaussian elimination is an obvious choice but there are other methods. In essence we can
invert the stiffness matrix and multiply this by the load vector to obtain the global displacements.

d=K-1P (7)

Luckily Mathcad can do this directly, so this allows us to solve banks of simultaneous equations
without any issues. Similar matrix inversion functions are available in excel, and you will probably
find routines available in matlab etc.

Following on from this the member forces can be found from:

Pm= Kmtmd (8)

36
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Minimum Potential Energy
and Rayleigh Ritz

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FE Formulation

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Plane Stress FE example

2
Data a  20  mm b  10  mm E  200  kN  mm ν  0.3

a) x  5  mm y  5  mm

shape functions

( a  x)  ( b  y )
N1  N1  0.09375
4 a b

( a  x)  ( b  y )
N2  N2  0.15625
4 a b

( a  x)  ( b  y )
N3  N3  0.46875
4 a b

( a  x)  ( b  y )
N4  N4  0.28125
4 a b

N1  N2  N3  N4  1 OK

Also check shape functions at each node (=1 at it's node, 0 at all other nodes) OK

b)
Displacements :

u 1  0  mm v 1  0  mm u 2  0.002  mm v 2  0.002  mm

u 3  0.003  mm v 3  0.003  mm u 4  0.002  mm v 4  0  mm

 u 1 
 v1 
u 
 2
 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0   v2 
NSF    d   
 0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 
 u3 
 v3 
 
 u4 
 v4 
 

123
  1.156  10 3 
dp     mm
d p  NSF  d
  3
 1.719  10 

Calculation of Strains:

General relations

 d 0 
 dx 
 
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198
Special Topics in Seismic
Engineering

199
 Specialist Topics in Seismic Engineering

4.1 Seismic Interactions

When conducting a seismic analysis or design of any structure, the first consideration is to
ensure that the dynamic response does not compromise allowable forces, deflections etc .
However, as the problem is a dynamic one, there can be secondary issues associated with
responses of structures ‘interfering’ with each other during their motion. These issues fall
under the broad heading of ‘seismic interaction’ and the consequences can be catastrophic.
These problems tend to be of major concern in the Nuclear Industry (but not exclusively so)
where items of equipment are protected and must not be allowed to interact with
neighbouring structures during their response to prescribed design earthquakes. There are two
common interaction scenarios as follows:

 Pounding of anchored objects – This is where two or more objects (secured to a point
of fixity) are in close proximity and their responses may cause closure of gaps. The
resulting pounding action may cause high impact forces which must be avoided.

 Rocking, sliding, and overturning of unanchored objects – This is where one or more
objects (that are free standing) have a propensity during a seismic event to lose contact
with the ground with either sliding or rocking motion (or a combination of both). In
some cases the object may just rock and remain upright, overturn completely, or slide
a considerable distance. It may be that the object itself contains protected equipment,
or a simple cabinet might overturn and impact a neighbouring piece of equipment. In
each case an assessment need to be made as to what the expected behaviour might be.

It is normal that the cost effective solution to a potential impact scenario is to perform a
seismic assessment calculation to attempt to mitigate the problem. There are simple methods
available which employing conservative assumptions in the assessment of the response, and
these can lead to rapid solutions should the interaction be proven not to exist. However if the
simple methods cannot mitigate the interaction, then either further more complex analysis
techniques need to be employed which remove conservatisms, or eventually a plant
modification may be required (this can be costly and produce a lot of administrative
paperwork!)

Each interaction scenario is unique, but there normally simple methodologies which can be
employed requiring a sound understanding of kinematics and basic structural techniques. Two
interaction problems are discussed in detail for which the solution strategies have a wide
range of application:

200
 4.1.1 Pounding of anchored objects

If we assume that a potential pounding interaction has been identified between two
anchored objects, then an assessment of the potential dynamic displacement of each
object at the point at which pounding can occur needs to be carried out. The general
procedural points are as follows:

(i) The response spectra (acceleration) at the location of the point(s) of fixity will
be required (these are normally available).

(ii) Calculate the natural frequencies of the objects using suitable simple formula
(from Blevins).

(iii) Determine the spectral displacement at the centre of gravity from the response
spectra. This needs to be done for each object.

(iv) The displacement then requires interpolation/extrapolation to the point where

the objects might pound. This is achieved through knowledge of the mode
shape of the particular object (the formula for the mode shape function
normally accompanies the formula for the natural frequency).

(v) Sum the displacements from both objects at the point of interest and compare
this with the existing clearance. If result is greater than the clearance then
obviously pounding cannot be ruled out. If result is less by a considerable
margin then you have an argument that pounding can be ruled out. However, if
the result is less but only marginally, then engineering judgement should be
exercised as to whether there is reasonable conservatism to mitigate the
interaction.

Note: In some real instances it may be difficult to determine the natural frequencies
accurately. If this is the case, the spectra should be converted to a displacement
spectra and the calculation based on the peak values.

The following example shows how these calculations can be applied in practice.

201
Example Calculation (Estimation) of Seismic Displacement

Figure 4.1 shows two cabinets containing protected equipment which are in close proximity
to each other (50mm). They are of different heights and have different masses and flexural
rigidities as shown. They may be idealised as vertical cantilevers with distributed mass. The
floor acceleration response spectra for the location is given in figure 4.2

50mm gap
Displaced Shapes

Point of Contact

h2 = 2.2m
h1 = 2m

2 2
EI = 6666.67 kN/m EI = 2109.4 kN/m

Mass =1000kg/m Mass =1000kg/m

Figure 4.1 Cabinets idealised as vertical cantilevers

12

10

8
Acceleration
6
m/sec2
4

0
0.1 1 10 100

Frequency Hz

Figure 4.2 Floor Response Spectra for the location

202
 Data for Structure No 1
2
height of structure h 1  2.0 m Equivalent Rigidity EI1  6666.67kN
 m

1
mass of structure mass 1  1000 kg m

Data for Structure No 2

2
height of structure h 2  2.2 m Equivalent Rigidity EI2  2109.4kN
 m

1
mass of structure mass 2  1000 kg m

Structure No 1

Calculate the natural frequency of the first cabinet using an appropriate formula from Blevins.
Choose cantilever with distributed loading, Blevins table 8.1 (data sheet) frame 3:

2 0.5
  EI1 
  1.87510407 f    f  11.423Hz

2    h 1 
2 mass 1


Calculate the spectral acceleration from the horizontal secondary response spectra, fig 4.2.
2
Spectral lateral acceleration ah  5 m s

ah
Corresponding spectral displacement at centroid d h  d h  0.971 mm
2
( 2   f )

Now extrapolate to the top of cabinet 1 using the mode shape. First examine the mode shape
function:
With a  h 1 1  0.734095514

y ( x)  cosh 
x   x    x   x  
  cos    1  sinh  a   sin  a  
 a   a      

calculate the non-dimensional mode shape factors at the centroid and at the top of the cabinet:

 h1 
at centroid y   0.679
 2

at structure top  
y h1  2

203
Now increase the spectral displacement at the centroid in the ratio of the mode factors to
obtain the displacement at the top of the structure

 
y h1
Displacement at the top of cabinet 1 d max   dh
 h1  d max  2.859 mm
y 
 2
Structure No 2

Natural Frequency of second cabinet - use same formula as for the first cabinet
2 0.5
  EI2 
  1.87510407 f    f  5.31 Hz
2    h 2 
2 mass 2


2
Spectral lateral acceleration ah  10 m s

ah
corresponding spectral displacement at centroid d h  d h  8.983 mm
2
( 2   f )

Extrapolate using mode shape to height where structures will may pound, i.e. top of
first cabinet:

with a  h 2 1  0.734095514

y ( x)  cosh 
x 
 cos 
x 
 1  sinh 
x 
 sin 
x  
   
 a   a    a   a 

Mode shape factors:

 h2 
at centroid y   0.679
 2

at structure top (note: will clash only at top of structure 1)  

y h 1  1.75
Hence displacement at top of cabinet 1
 
y h1
d max   dh
 h2  d max  23.148mm

y 
 2

204
So the sum of the displacement of each cabinet at the top of cabinet 1 is around 26mm. With a
gap of 50mm, the first conclusion would be that the structures do not pound.

If (as is usual) there is some uncertainty in the properties and hence the frequency, then
examine the maximum spectral displacements regardless of frequency. For example if the
frequency of structure 2 was actually 3Hz, then the spectral displacement is much larger, and
when extrapolated to the top, this exceeds 70mm, i.e. above the gap width. So pounding could
not be ruled out in this case.

Practical solutions :

There are a number of practical solutions to the problem if pounding cannot be mitigated in
this case. The obvious one is to tie the tops of the cabinets together, so that they respond
together (e.g. weld a metal strap across). Dampers can also be placed in-between.

4.1.2 Stability of Unanchored objects.

When unanchored objects are subjected to seismic motion, they may remain connected to the
floor, slide, rock, or completely overturn. When assessing the seismic integrity of such
structures it is common to proceed through a logical hierarchy of calculations, depending on
the requirements:

 First assume the structure is fixed to the floor and calculate the natural frequency
using standard formulae

 Using the frequency calculated in the first step, determine the relevant horizontal and
vertical accelerations from the spectra.

 Use a ‘pseudo-static’ approach to calculate the forces due to the earthquake on the
structure and whether they overcome frictional resistance and restoring moments. If so
then the structure response will change due to rocking and/or sliding, and further
analysis will be required.

When a structure rocks or slides, its response now alters. Usually sliding involves the analysis
of ‘sticking’ and ‘slipping’ during the reponse and can be analysed using Newmarks ‘sliding
block’ approach which is commonly employed to examine sliding in earth embankments and
dams. This method is quite involved, but can be programmed and may provide more rapid
solutions than employing FE analysis. Alternatively rocking might occur, and the natural
frequency of this type of response is dramatically reduced. As a result, displacements may be
enhanced and the structure could potentially overturn. The latter of these problems occurs in
many practical situations, i.e. masonry, stonework monuments and typically masonry wall
stability. In the nuclear field there may be items of equipment which might overturn thereby
interacting with neighbouring structures. Fortunately there are further calculations based on
energy methods which can be easily employed to determine whether a structure is likely to

205
overturn. A simple check of potential energy vs kinetic energy can be used to determine
whether the system has any ‘reserve energy’ and a margin against overturning.

The ‘Reserve Energy’ method is best illustrated by way of example as follows:

Example - Reserve Energy Approach to Overturning:

The assessment of overturning/sliding that has been conducted so far has been based on the
propensity of an unanchored object to uplift (rock) or move laterally during a prescribed
earthquake. However, if we concentrate on the mechanics of rocking, the techniques used so
far do not prove that the structure will actually overturn.

It may be sufficient for the purposes of seismic assessment to show that although an object
may rock during an earthquake, it will not necessarily overturn. Therefore we now introduce
the concept of 'reserve energy' which compares the kinetic energy applied by the earthquake
to the potential energy required to pass the centre of gravity of the object past its highest
point.

1000kg
H = 2m

d1 d2

B = 1m

Figure 4.3

206
Referring to figure 1, let us assume that the block has a natural frequency of 7Hz assuming it
is anchored. Also lets assume that from the corresponding spectra, a value of spectral
acceleration of 15m/s2 is applicable. We can now calculate the kinetic energy from the
spectral velocity as follows:

Data 2
ah  15m s f  7 Hz mass  1000 kg

ah 1
Calculate spectral horizontal velocity Sv  Sv  0.341 m s
2   f

Kinetic energy in earthquake trying to overturn the object

1 2
KE   mass  Sv KE  58.156J
2

Next we need to calculate the potential energy involved in raising the centroid of the section
from its static location to its highest point. If we assume that rocking occurs about either of
the two bottom corners, then the height to be used in the calculation is the difference between
the distance from a bottom corner to the centroid (d1) and the vertical height to the centroid
(d2). Hence:

Height of object H  2 m Breadth of object B  1 m

Distance from bottom corner to centroid  2 2

d 1    H   B 
    d 1  1.118m
  2   2 
H
Vertical distance to centroid d 2  d2  1 m
2

Therefore the centroid must be raised a distance of: d  d  118.034mm


1 2
for overturning to occur

Potential energy required to overturn object

 
mass  g  d 1  d 2  1157.518J

First Conclusion, as KE <PE then the object will not overturn

207
Now we need to consider the issues with the calculation of the frequency. In the first instance
the natural frequency of 7Hz is calculated as if the object was anchored to the floor. This is
o.k. for an initial assumption. Thereafter if it is proven to rock, rocking frequencies tend to
have very low natural frequencies. Lets examine what this does to the kinetic energy say if the
frequency drops to 0.5Hz:

f  0.5 Hz
ah 1
Calculate spectral horizontal velocity Sv  Sv  4.775 m s
2   f

Kinetic energy in earthquake trying to overturn the cabinet

1 2
KE   mass  Sv KE  11398.633J
2

The kinetic energy is now larger than the potential energy and will overturn the object.
However the acceleration of the object at low frequencies is likely to be smaller also. Hence,
let us assume the acceleration has dropped to 2m/s2 on the spectra. The kinetic energy now
becomes:

2
f  0.5 Hz ah  2 m s

ah 1
Calculate spectral horizontal velocity Sv  Sv  0.637 m s
2   f

Kinetic energy in earthquake trying to overturn the object:

1 2
KE   mass  Sv KE  202.642J
2

Final Conclusion: The object will still not overturn

From the results it can be seen that it would be best to convert the acceleration spectra to
velocity spectra, then a judgement can be made as to the worst case spectral velocity. This
velocity can then be used for calculating the kinetic energy. In the absence of this then
examination at two frequencies as presented here should be sufficient.

In this example the potential energy is significantly larger than the kinetic energy, so we are
fairly safe in the knowledge of passing the judgement that overturning will not occur.
However if the two energies were not disparate then it would be wise to incorporate a suitable
significant margin to ensure that uncertainty in the calculation is accounted for.

The purpose of this exercise is to show how reserve energy principles can be used to estimate
whether an object will overturn. In fact the numbers show that quite an onerous earthquake
would be needed (or special circumstances such as impact) to topple a broad based object
such as that used in the example. If the cabinet has a narrow base then the distance which the

208
centroid needs to 'pick-up' to overturn is reduced and hence the potential energy is reduced
also, giving it more 'potential for toppling'

Also note that no assumption has been made regarding the vertical component of the
earthquake. How would you incorporate this?

4.2 Nonlinear Analysis and Ductility Modified Spectra

Designing structures to remain elastic in large earthquakes is likely to be uneconomic in most

cases, as the force demands will be very large. A more economical design can be achieved by
accepting some level of damage short of complete collapse, and making use of the ductility of
the structure to reduce the force demands to acceptable levels. Of course it is then crucial to
ensure that the structure does fail by a ductile mode well before brittle failure modes develop
- a principle known as capacity design. Examples of designing for ductility include:

• Ensuring plastic hinges form in beams before columns

• Providing adequate confinement to concrete using closely spaced steel hoops
• Ensuring that steel members fail away from connections
• Avoiding large irregularities in structural form
• Ensuring flexural strengths are significantly lower than shear strengths

Of course ductility implies non-linear structural response, meaning that the linear methods
introduced above are not appropriate. However, an appropriate analysis can be performed in a
very similar way to above by using ductility-modified response spectra.

What is ductility?

Ductility is the ability of a structure or member to withstand large deformations beyond its
yield point (often over many cycles) without fracture. In earthquake engineering, ductility is
expressed in terms of demand and supply:

• The ductility demand is the maximum ductility that the structure experiences
during an earthquake. This relates to how the structure responds to the earthquake and so
is a function of both the structure and the earthquake.
• The ductility supply is the maximum ductility the structure can sustain without
fracture. This is purely a structural property, and does not depend on the loading.

The designer must ensure that:

Ductility Supply > Ductility Demand

Probably the easiest way of defining ductility is in terms of displacement. Suppose we have a
SDOF system with a clear yield point - the displacement ductility is defined as the maximum
displacement divided by the displacement at first yield.

U max
 (4.1)
Uy

209
In the example shown in Figure 4.4(a) μ = 5

This can be applied to structures such as multi-storey buildings by considering, for instance,
the roof displacement. However, this needs to be done with care. First, if failure occurs by
successive formation of plastic hinges, the force-displacement curve may not show a sharp
yield point, and one will have to be estimated. Second, the overall displacement ductility is
only really meaningful if the plasticity is uniformly distributed with height. Otherwise, an
apparently low global ductility can mask regions of high ductility within the structure.

As an example, figure 4(b) shows force-displacement plots for a two-storey building in which
yielding occurs in the first storey. Looking only at the top displacement implies a global
displacement ductility of μ = 3, but this disguises the fact that in the bottom storey μ has
reached 5 while in the top there is no yield at all. In such cases it is obviously more useful to
work in terms of storey ductility than overall ductility.

F F
Level 2
Level 1

Uy Umax U Uy1 Uy2 Umax,1 U

max,2 U
Figure 4.4(a) - Ductility calculation Figure 4.4(b) - Ductility calculation for the
for a yielding SDOF system two levels of a two storey building

Figure 4.4

It can also be useful to go to an even more localized level by considering ductility in terms of
the curvature - i.e. the curvature of a flexural element at failure divided by its curvature at
first yield. Here again, since deformation tends to concentrate in yielded regions, the localized
ductility may be much higher than the overall value obtained by considering the whole
structure.

4.2.1. Ductility modified spectra for SDOF systems

A simple analysis of a yielding SDOF system can be performed using ductility-modified

response spectra. First consider the behaviour of an elastic-perfectly plastic SDOF system
with initial elastic stiffness k and fundamental frequency f. At a ductility demand μ the
spectral displacement is μ times the yield displacement:

210
 Fy Sa S d ,
S d ,    hence S a ,    n2 (4.2)
k  n2 

Thus the relationship between spectral displacement and acceleration is similar to the elastic
case, but for the inclusion of the factor μ. We can use this fact to help explain the general
form of the response spectra for a ductile system, an example of which is shown in figure 4.5.

Sa

Elastic
m=1

Sa ( m = 1 ) m=2

m=3
Sa ( m = 2 )
Sa ( m = 3 )

Frequency (log)

Figure 4.5 - Ductility Modified Response Spectra

A high frequency system (say f > 33 Hz) is very stiff and hardly deforms at all - it simply
moves with the ground. The response is dominated by the inertial term, which is unaffected
whether or not the spring has yielded. The spectral acceleration is therefore the same as the
elastic value (right-most point in figure 4.5 - i.e. ZPA). From equation 2, however, the
spectral displacement is μ times greater than the elastic value.

At the other extreme, for low frequencies the structure is very flexible. When subjected to a
ground motion, the mass stays approximately still and the deformation of the spring is
roughly equal to the ground displacement, whatever the ductility. It then follows from
equation 4.2 that the spectral acceleration is a factor of μ lower than the elastic value (left-
hand side of figure 4.5).

At intermediate frequencies the accelerations are divided by some factor N between 1 and μ.
There are various different procedures for deriving the spectral shape in this region.

211
These results are summarized in the table below:

High Frequency Medium Frequency Low Frequency

Structures Structures Structures
Displacement S dplastic    S delastic S dplastic  N  S delastic S dplastic  S delastic
Acceleration S aplastic  S aelastic S aelastic S aelastic
S plastic
 S plastic


a a
N
Force F plastic
F elastic
F elastic
F elastic
F plastic
 F plastic

N 

So to use ductility-modified spectrum in design, we calculate the elastic period of the

structure and decide what is an acceptable ductility demand (codes give guidelines related to
structural form and detailing). We can then read off the spectral acceleration from the
appropriate ductility-modified spectrum, multiply by the mass to get earthquake force, and
use equation 4.2 to find spectral displacement.

4.3 Pushover analysis - Nonlinear Static Methods

Non-linear effects are not a usual consideration for ‘normal’ seismic design, yet there can be
much to be gained from post yield strength. In fact, collapse will tend to be governed by the
degree of straining that the structure can withstand at failure (i.e. ductility). To incorporate the
effects of dynamics and material/geometric nonlinearity, a full transient finite element time
history analysis can be carried out which incorporates these nonlinear effects. These analyses
are obviously carried out in the time domain (frequency domain analyses are based on linear
modal analyses), so can be costly depending on the problem in hand. So these techniques tend
to be reserved for specialist issues such as Nuclear related projects.

Although computing power has increased with time, nonlinear time history methods are still
regarded as specialist, so alternative approaches are being favoured. One such approach,
pushover analysis, essentially adopts a non-linear static analysis as is now described.

In general, assuming a multi-storey building (multi degree of freedom structure), the analysis
reduces this as a single degree of freedom structure, so that a response spectrum can be used.
The properties of the SDOF structure are derived from a nonlinear FE model of the building
frame subjected to lateral loading which increases monotonically until it is ‘pushed over’. The
design response spectrum is then used to ascertain the peak displacement of the SDOF, so the
plastic strains in the FE model can then be deduced, also providing information on where
plasticity is distributed in the building.

There are obviously drawbacks when simplifying a complex nonlinear MDOF into a SDOF.
For example issues of torsional response (should these be significant) cannot be captured as
the technique is only concerned with lateral behaviour (which is likely to dominate. However
non-linear behaviour can now be addressed using this approach, as compared to conservative
linear methods which are widespread and commonplace. Non-linear static methods of
analysis fall under the umbrella of ‘displacement-based’ analysis as compared with linear
methods which are ‘strength-based’. These methods are widely used in the US, but do appear
in Eurocode 8, Part 1, Annexe B.

212
The sequence for designing using the a nonlinear static approach (pushover analysis) are
outlined as follows:

(i) Define a set of lateral forces at each floor in the building corresponding to the
inertia forces generated in the earthquake, (i.e. a linear distribution with
height of the building may be appropriate if the building has an even
distribution of stiffness, see figure 4.6)

(ii) Increase the forces in proportion and log the displacement at the top of the
building against total base shear.

(iii) The forces are increased through the elastic and plastic phases until failure
occurs by exceedence of plastic strains at plastic hinge locations. Plasticity
can be incorporated in the model through nonlinear stress strain curves, or by
moment rotation curves at plastic hinge locations, depending on the specific
FE code employed.

(iv) A static pushover curve base shear vs top displacement is obtained, figure 4.7

There are a couple of methods available for carrying out the design section of the
calculations, namely the Target displacement method’ and the ‘Capacity spectrum method’.
The former is straightforward in application so will be described here.

(v) Determine the fundamental natural frequency of the building, f

(vi) Using an elastic 5% damped response spectrum, the spectral displacement is

calculated from the fundamental frequency f.

(vii) The spectral displacement obtained is that for the centre of mass, so this has
to be amplified to the top of the building. A modal factor can be calculated
from the mode shape and effective mass, in this case for a uniform cantilever
this is 1.27.

(viii) The top displacement obtained from (vii) above can be read from the
pushover curve to provide the state of strains in the structure, and provide the
basis for design.

213
 Figure 4.6 Linear Distribution of Lateral forces.
Base Shear

Top Deflection

Figure 4.7 - Pushover curve

214
Summary
This chapter has presented the common forms of seismic interaction, focussing on pounding
and overturning issues. Also the incorporation of nonlinear analysis through ductility
modified spectra and pushover analysis has been introduced. You should be able to:

 Carry out calculations on a varied of practical problems which involve contact

interaction (pounding).

 Carry out calculations which involve stability issues such as unanchored objects
rocking, sliding and overturning.

 Understand the use of ductility modified spectra and how pushover analysis is carried
out as an alternative to full nonlinear direct integration time history analysis.

215
Supplementary Files

216
 ANSYS Overview

There are a number of commercial stiffness and Finite Element packages on the
market. Packages such as QSE/STAAD tend to use stiffness methods to solve basic
structural element configurations , and bolt on a code assessment/design facility.
General purpose Finite Element packages such as ANSYS, ABAQUS, and LUSAS
(among many others) have a broader application. Their element libraries are more
sophisticated and will cope with structural, thermal, magnetism, electrical, and fluid
flow to name a few. Dynamics is also easily modelled.

These notes aim to cover the basic procedures required for a static structural analysis
using ANSYS.

Terminology Overview

All finite element analyses require the following stages:

Pre-processing Phase

This is the stage where the model is created. Loads and boundary conditions may be
entered in this stage.

Solution Phase

The model is solved in this stage, i.e. all necessary calculations are carried out. (Note:
for ANSYS the loads and boundary conditions are entered before solution in this
phase rather than the preprocessor).

Post-processing

The results are interrogated in this stage. Displacements, forces stresses etc. can be
obtained.

Summary of information required for a typical finite element analysis using

ANSYS

Key Points to note for simple structural analysis:

1/ Pre-processing (/prep7)

• Nodes and Elements.

A mesh of nodes and elements is required to form your model. If the model is simple
in form, it is probably easier to apply direct generation . With this method the nodes
and elements are explicitly created through a series of commands. If the model is
large and has complex geometries, then solid modelling may be the preferred choice.
This method requires the generation of volumes areas and lines onto which the nodes
and elements are meshed.

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Note: In many cases direct generation may be preferred to solid modelling by
virtue that the user has complete control and knowledge of the node and
element numbering system. However solid modelling would be required if
you have an homogenous material to model such as a mechanical steel
part.

ANSYS has a database of elements that each have a library accession number. e.g.
'beam 3' is a two noded elastic beam. Each element required from this database is
given a number by the user for general model reference. 'Keyoptions' associated with
the element are defined at the time of selection. These control items such a data output
for the element (to be accessed in the post-processor)

• Geometric Properties.

The model must know what geometric properties are required for your elements. For
example, if you have a model consisting of beam elements, you need to know what
the section properties are, i.e. Ixx, breadth height etc. These properties are termed 'real
constants' in ANSYS. Each real constant set is created and assigned a type number by
the user

• Material Properties

The material properties of the elements are required. A user defined material type
number is created and material properties such a elastic modulus and density etc. are
input.

Note: Before the elements are 'generated' onto the nodes, the element type, real
constant set type and material type are defined for the subsequent elements generated.

2/ Solution

• Boundary conditions

Boundary conditions are defined by specifying a displacement for particular

degrees of freedom at a node or series of nodes. In most cases the displacement is
specified as zero for fixity in that DOF.

• Loading

This can be in the form of point loads on nodes (direct units of force), pressures
on plates/shells (force per unit area), and body forces (accelerations acting on the
mass). For example if we wish to apply gravity to a structure, assuming we have
specified a density in the material properties, applying a downward body
acceleration of 9.81 m/s2 will produce the required gravity effect. (Note in recent
versions of ANSYS, gravity may be applied as an upward acceleration on the
boundaries.

• Solution

The 'solve' command is issued.

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3/ Post-processing (/post1)

The post-processing commences by issuing the load step and iteration required.
For a linear elastic analysis this is load step 1 iteration 1 (other analyses such as a
non-linear plastic analysis requires further load steps and iterations in the solution
phase which can all be accessed when post-processing- outside the scope of this
work).

Displacements, forces, stresses and a variety of other properties may be

interrogated in this stage. Contour plots, data listings are available etc.

Other Packages:

NB other packages vary slightly in their arrangement of data input, materials

geometry etc. but essentially the procedures are all the same.

EXAMPLE ANSYS PROBLEM: FERRIS WHEEL

This example shows how to solve the problem of a simple framework. The problem is
linear and elastic and represents the simplest type of problem ANSYS can solve. It
provides a clear insight to how to set-up and solve an ANSYS model. The solution is
compared with standard results.

A ferris wheel in a fairground can be idealised as eight pin-ended spokes of length

10m attached symmetrically to a rigid rim and meeting at a central hub of negligible
dimensions as shown in the figure. The spokes all have the same cross sectional area
(0.005m2) and are made of steel (E = 200kN/mm2). The loading on the wheel indices
a total reactive force at the hub of 500kN directed at 30 degrees to the vertical as
shown. Taking the hub to be the single free joint in the structure, calculate the global
stiffness matrix, the displacements of the hub relative to the rim and the forces in the
spokes.

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Summary of Material/Geometric properties:

Spoke Cross Sectional Area = 0.005m2

Elastic Modulus E = 200kN/mm2
Poisson's Ratio ν = 0.3
Applied Hub Force = 500kN

1 Start Ansys

From the start menu select 'ANSYS' and run 'interactive' or 'interactive now'. ANSYS
will begin (click logically through any other windows that appear)

Once ANSYS has initialised you will see a number of windows on the screen . The
important windows are as follows

Utility Menu ( top toolbar). This has all the normal file/edit functions of other
windows programs plus other ANSYS specific functions.

ANSYS Input. This is for direct input of ANSYS commands . Once the user is
familiar with ANSYS commands, this allows direct input as an alternative to
'ploughing' through the 'Main Menu'

Main Menu. Contains all logical trees to various ANSYS functions for input of data.
The Menu contains many submenus which appear on selection of various commands.

ANSYS Graphics. This plots graphically any entity that the user requires, i.e. the
model, graphs of data, results etc.

For the steps that follow, menu commands tree structure will shown in italics and
their alternative direct input will be noted in bold.

2. Preprocessor

a) By clicking on 'pre-processor' in the main menu, the main structural pre-

processor will be entered. Alternatively the following command can be typed
into the input box:

/prep7

b) Enter a title for the project. From the utility menu choose file->change title.
Enter the title 'Plate 1'.

/title, Ferris Wheel

c) Element Type

Choose the element type. From utility menu select

element type->add/edit/delete

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 In the element types window click 'add', and select element type 'structural
link, 2Dspar' from the library window. The element type reference number is
your user defined number for this element type (in this case 1). Click 'o.k.' or
'apply'.

Note: In the element type window click on 'options'. This is where you can set
various keyoptions for the element you have just chosen. These keyoptions
control various output. In our case the 2D spar does not require any output, so
ANSYS will tell you this.

The command line input to perform the aforementioned selection of element

types is as follows

et,1,1

(i.e. element type, user ref no, library no,keyopt1, keyopt2,keyopt3.....etc.)

Note: the element types can be checked by issuing the command etlist.

d) Real constants.

From the pre-processor menu select real constants->add . The spar element
should be highlighted in a window. click o.k. and a window appears for real
constant set. The set number can remain at 1, and the other values are filled in
as required. In our case, the cross sectional area of the spar is entered.

Command line input is as follows:

r,1,0.005

Note: the real constant sets can be checked by issuing the command rlist

e) Material Properties.

From the pre-processor window select material props->material models

A window entitled define material model behaviour should appear. Click on

the following sequence of menu commands: material model number 1 >
structural > linear> elastic> isotropic. Enter the appropriate Young's
modulus (EX) and Poisson's ratio (PRXY) into the menu which appears, then
press o.k.

The material types can be checked by issuing the command mplist

Note: It is possible that due to the Universities limitations for writing to the 'C'
drive, ANSYS may not be able to activate the menus correctly for material
models. In this case you have no choice but to enter the commands via the
input window, like so:

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 mp,ex,1,2e11
mp,prxy,1,0.3

(i.e. MP,property,refno,propertyvalue)

f) Define Nodes

From the pre-processor menu select

modelling/create->nodes->in active co-ordinate system. A menu box appears
which allows you to enter the node number and its location in x,y,z in
cartesian space. Enter node 1 at the origin (i.e.0,0,0 in x,y, and z)

n,1,0,0,0

(i.e. n,nodeNo,x,y,z)

Do the same to create the rest of the nodes :

n,2,0,10,0
n,3,7.071,7.071,0
n,4,10,0,0
n,5,7.071,-7.071,0
n,6,0,-10,0
n,7,-7.071,-7.071,0
n,8,-10,0,0
n,9,-7.071,7.071,0

Issuing the command 'nplot' will plot the nodes on the graphics window at any
time.

The nodes should now be visible in plan.

g) Generate elements

Before any elements are generate the element type, real constant set and
material property set have to be activated. These commands are as follows:
create->elements->element attributes. Select the set numbers for real
constants, material properties and element type for subsequent generation.

type,1
mat,1
real,1

Before you generate elements with different real constants, materials, etc, you
must activate the relevant set using these commands. In our case we only have
1 real constant set, 1 material property set and 1 element type, hence they are
all set to 1.

The first element is defined by selecting:

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 elements->autonumbered/thru nodes

A graphical picking window should appear. Pick node 1 and 2 in that order,
and click on OK. The element should appear on the screen. Do this eight times
to generate all elements.

The command line input for this is:

e,1,2
e,1,3
e,1,4
e,1,5
e,1,6
e,1,7
e,1,8
e,1,9

(i.e. e,node1,node2,node3,node4)

Alternatively you can use the explicit 'en' numbering command as follows:

en,node number, node1,node2

VERY IMPOTANT NOTE: When elements are created in sequence the 'e'
command generates the next element in the sequence following on from those
that have already been created. Therefore if you delete any elements, it will
still continue numbering elements in the sequence regardless. Hence you may
end up with gaps in your element numbering. The en command requires the
element number to be defined explicitly, therefore this can be used to
overcome this problem. Input from the menu system should also solve this
problem.

Issue the 'eplot' command to view the whole model. This will show the
elements if they were not visible already

h) Next issue the 'save as' command from the utility menu at the top. Save the file
under any name you like (e.g plate1). It is wise to save your work periodically
in any case, but the program should prompt you to save when you exit the
preprocessor. The file is saved as an ANSYS *.DB file (database file)

3 Enter the Solver

From the main menu click on 'solution'. You will then enter the solution phase.

The command line input for this is:

/solve

a) Boundary Conditions

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 Select load/apply->structural/displacement->on nodes

You can now pick or enter node numbers for constraint. We need to constrain
nodes 2 to 9 from movement in the x and y directions

The command line input for this is:

d,2,ux,0,,9,1
d,2,uy,0,,9,1

(i.e. d,nodeNo,coord direction,displacement value, unused, last

node,nodeinc)

We can alter the view of the plot by issuing the 'view' command

/view,1,1,1,1 (window1, and equal vectors along each axis, should give us an
isometric plot).
b) Loading

load/apply-> Forces/Moments->on nodes

Define the loading in the x and y directions. (The 500kN load needs to be
resolved along these directions.

Save the database again and issue the solve command

solve/current LS (LS stands for load step)

solve

click on ok for any further windows which appear and the program will solve
the model

4 Post-Processor

From the main menu select general post-processor.

/post1

select read results/first set. This will read the first increment of the first load
step (o.k. in our case as the model is linear elastic).

set,1,1

The results can now be examined in various ways. For example, to plot
displacement, select plot results->deformed shape. Highlight the relevant
option (it is normally useful to plot the undeformed shape in addition.)

pldisp,1,1

Other relevant results to this model will be discussed in class.

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 Extracts from Blevins
‘Formulas for Natural
Frequency and Mode Shape’

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