SIGNAL CONDITIONING - (PART 2)

& SENSORS

Data Acquisition systems – CC415

Lecture 3
Dr. Sherine Nagi
INTEGRATORS AND
DIFFERENTIATORS

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Op-amp Integrator
• The charge on a capacitor is proportional to the charging current and the time

• In terms of voltage

∆
∆

The rate of change at which the capacitor charges, and therefore the slope of the
output ramp, is set by the ratio .

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Example
• Determine the rate of change of the output voltage in response to the first input
pulse in a pulse waveform, as shown for the integrator in figure. The output
voltage is initially zero.
• Describe the output after the first pulse. Draw the output waveform.

100𝜇𝑠

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5
Op-amp Differentiator

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Example
• Determine the output voltage of the op-amp differentiator in figure for the
triangular-wave input shown.

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SENSORS
Data Acquisition Channel

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Sensors
• Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our bodies, automobiles, airplanes,
cellular telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and countless other
applications.
• Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation

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Sensor Examples
• Distance sensor: Measures the length of the straight line between two defined
points
• Position sensor: Measures the co-ordinates of a specified point of an object in a
specified reference system
• Displacement sensor: Measures the change of position relative to a reference
point
• Angular sensor: Measures the angle of rotation relative to a reference position

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Sensor Examples
• Tilt sensor: Measures the angle relative to the earth’s normal
• Tachometer: Measures rotational speed
• Vibration sensor: Measures the motion of a vibrating object in terms of
displacement, velocity or acceleration
• Accelerometer: Measures acceleration
• Pressure sensor: Measures pressure difference, relative to either vacuum
(absolute pressure), a reference pressure

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Sensor characteristics
• Accuracy: The agreement between the actual value and the measured
value
• Resolution: the smallest amount of change in the input that can be
detected and accurately indicated by the sensor.
• Repeatability: Variation of sensor measurements when the same quantity
is measured several times
• Range: Upper and lower limits of the variable that can be measured

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Classification of sensors
• Active sensors require an external power supply to operate.
 Example: LVDT sensor or a strain gauge.

• Passive sensor does not need any additional power source.

 Example: a thermocouple which generates its own voltage output when exposed to
heat.

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 ANALOGUE AND
DIGITAL SENSORS

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Analogue Sensors
• produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional to
the quantity being measured.
 Physicalquantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc are
all analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature

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Digital Sensors
• produce a discrete digital output signals or voltages that are a digital
representation of the quantity being measured

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Analogue versus Digital
• Compared to analogue signals, digital signals or quantities have very high accuracies
and can be both measured and “sampled” at a very high clock speed.
• The accuracy of the digital signal is proportional to the number of bits used to
represent the measured quantity.
• For example,
using a processor of 8 bits, will produce an accuracy of 0.390% (1 part in 256).
using a processor of 16 bits gives an accuracy of 0.0015%, (1 part in 65,536)
260 times more accurate

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POSITION SENSORS

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Position Sensors
• Detect the position of something which means that they are referenced either to
or from some fixed point or position. These types of sensors provide a “positional”
feedback.

• Position Sensors can detect the movement of an object in a straight line using
Linear Sensors or by its angular movement using Rotational Sensors.

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1. The Potentiometer

Loading error = 𝑵𝑳 𝑳

= output voltage with load applied

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Examples
• A pot is supplied with 10v and is set at o
o

• A KΩ pot is used as a position sensor. Assume the wiper is in the middle of its
range. Find the loading error when:
a. The interface circuit presents an infinite resistance.
b. The interface circuit presents a resistance of KΩ

• A single- turn pot ( has a linearity error of 0.1% and is connected to a 5v dc

source. Calculate the maximum angle error that could be expected from this
system.

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Note:
• Advantages of potentiometers: low cost, low tech, easy to use etc
• Disadvantages of potentiometers: wear due to moving parts, low accuracy and
the range of movement of its wiper or slider (and hence the output signal
obtained) is limited to the physical size of the potentiometer being used.

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2. Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
• Does not suffer from mechanical wear
problems
• This is an inductive type position sensor which
works on the same principle as the AC
transformer that is used to measure movement.
• It is a very accurate device for measuring linear
displacement and whose output is proportional
to the position of its moveable core

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 PROXIMITY
MEASUREMENT

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Mechanical Proximity Switches
When to Use Mechanical Proximity Switches
 Where physical contact is possible
 Where definitive position is required
 In operation-critical or safety-critical situations
 Where environment conditions preclude the use of optical or inductive sensors

Usually used as:

 Limit switch
 Presence/absence indicator
 Door closed/open

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Optical Proximity Sensors
When to use an Optical Proximity Sensor
 Non-contact, no moving parts, small.
 Fast switching, no switch bounce.
 Insensitive to vibration and shock
Note:
 Alignment always required
 Can be blinded by ambient light conditions (welding for example)
 Requires clean, dust and water free, environment

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Optical Proximity Sensors
Applications of Optical Proximity Sensors
 Stack height control/box counting

 Fluid level control (filling and clarity)

 Breakage and jam detection

 And many others…

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Ultrasonic Sensor

• Sound waves emitted are in the range of 2-13 MHz

• Applications:
 Sound Navigation And Ranging (SONAR)
 Radio Dection And Ranging (RADAR)

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