Chapter Two

Sensors and Applications

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 2.1 Introduction
•Sensing element, the first block diagram represented in the functional block
diagram of measurement system, is the basic and main building blocks of a
measurement system.
•Sensor is defined as a component, device or equipment that detects variation of
input or physical phenomenon and responds (or provides) equivalent electrical or it
may non electrical quantity corresponding to it.
•Often a term transducer is also used for sensing element; literally transducer is
defined as a device that transforms one form or type of energy into another.
• Example: a microphone, a photoelectric cell, an automobile horn, or bulb.
• Sensor is a transducer but transducer is more than a sensor, if it is used for sensing
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• Advantages of using sensors include
1. Mechanical effects such as friction is reduced to the minimum
possibility
2. Very small power is required for controlling the electrical system
3. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level
4. The electrical output can be detected and recorded remotely at a
distance from the sensing medium and use modern digital
computers

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 2.2 Classification of sensors

Sensors are used to detect physical quantities or variables of multidiscipline.

Hence there are different ways of classifying sensors.
The classification of sensors used is based on
1. The physical effect employed as resistive, inductive, capacitive sensors
2. The physical quantity they convert as displacement sensor, temperature
sensor, speed sensor, pressure sensor e.t.c

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• On other hand classification of sensors is given by
• Primary and secondary sensors
• Active and passive sensors
• Analog and Digital sensors

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Primary and Secondary Sensors

• Classification is based on the method of application

• Primary sensor
• The input NEQ is directly sensed by the sensor
• The physical phenomenon is converted into another NEQ

• Secondary sensor
• The output of the primary sensor is fed to another (secondary) sensor that
converts the NEQ to EQ
NEQ NEQ EQ
Load Strain-
cell gauge
Primary Secondary
sensor sensor
Weight Displacement Resistance
(Force F) d R

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Active and Passive Sensor
• Classification based on the basis of energy conversion

• Active sensor
• Generates voltage/current in response to NEQ variation
• Are also called self-generating sensors
• Normally, the output of active sensors is in V or mV
• Examples
• Thermocouples: A change in temperature produces output voltage
• Photovoltaic cell: Change solar energy into voltage
• Hall-effect sensors, …

NEQ EQ
Active
Ex. Temperature sensors Voltage or current

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 Active and Passive ….

• Passive sensors
• Sensors that does not generate voltage or current, but produce
element variation in R, L, or C
• Need an additional circuit to produce voltage or current variation
• Examples
• Thermistor: Change in temperature leads to change in resistance
• Photo resistor: Change in light leads to change in resistance
• Strain gauge: Change in length or position into change in resistance)
• Microphone

NEQ R, L, C

Passive
sensors

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 Analog and Digital Sensors

· Classification based on the nature of the output signal

· Analog sensor
· Gives an output that varies continuously as the input changes
· Output can have infinite number of values within the sensor’s range

· Digital sensor
· Has an output that varies in discrete steps or pulses or sampled form and so can
have a finite number of values

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 Based On the Physical Effect Employed
•When a physical effect employed on the sensing element causes change
in any of the physical parameter (quantity) .
•For example: A strain gauge is a sensor that when subjected to force or
pressure its resistance changes
•The very common variations of electrical quantities from sensing elements
when subjected to physical effect are
1. Variation in resistance
2. Variation in inductance
3. Variation in capacitance 10
 I: Resistive sensing elements(Variation in resistance)

•Resistance is the character or ability of an element to oppose the flow

of current. Often the resistance of an element is given in either of formula;
𝜌𝑙
𝑅= =𝑅 ( 𝜌 , 𝑙 , 𝐴)
𝐴
• Where is resistivity, l is length and A is cross-sectional area
• resistivity, , is the reciprocal of conductivity

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Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent Resistors
• Two classes of thermal resistors are
• Metallic element
• Semiconductor
• For most metals, the resistance increases with increase in
temperature
R (T )  R0 [1  1T   2T 2  ...]  R0 [1  T ] )

• Where  is the temperature coefficient of resistance and given as

1 R
 
T R0

• Example: Platinum
• Has a linear temperature-resistance characteristics
• Reproducible over a wide range of temperature
• Platinum Thermometers are used for temperature measurement

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Contd…
• Semiconductor based resistance thermometers elements
• The resistance of such elements decreases with increasing temperature
• Example: Thermistor
• The resistance-temperature relationship is non-linear and governed by
1 1
(  )
R (T )  R0 e T T0
; T0  300 0 K
• Where R0 is the resistance at absolute temp (in Kelvin) and  is material constant
expressed in degree Kelvin

• Most semiconductor materials used for thermometry possess high

resistivity and high negative temperature coefficients

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•Apparently a mathematical relation can established between the physical effect
and the resistance.
•Some of the very common sensors which work based up on this principle
are:
Potentiometer; for linear and angular displacement measurement,
Resistance thermometer( resistance temperature detectors( RTD), thermistor; for
temperature measurement
Strain gauge; for stress measurement such as; pressure ,force ,torque
Photoresistor (photoconductor) , for light intensity measurement

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 Resistive sensor: Potentiometer for linear and angular
displacement
• A resistive potentiometer is a resistance wire wound on a former provided with a sliding
contact and excited by dc or ac voltage source.
• The movement of the slider can be translational, rotational or combination of these two.
• They are the most commonly used type of sensor mainly for linear and angular
displacement measurement

Figure potentiometer for (a) linear displacement and (b) angular 15

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• Linear displacement angular displacement
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 . 𝑋 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 . 𝜃 0
𝑉 0= 𝑉 0=
𝐿 𝜃
𝑉 0= 𝐾 . 𝑋
𝑉0
𝑉 0= 𝐾 𝜃 0
𝑋= 𝑉0
𝜃0 =
𝐾 𝐾

Where x and  0 are linear and angular displacement, and K is the sensitivity
The sensitivity is the rate of output voltage per input displacement and is given by
Vin . V0
K 
L X
• The resolution of a potentiometer is the smallest change in displacement
that can be measured or identified.
• If the excitation is fixed then it is the smallest change in resistance that can
be identified by slider movement
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To measure physical parameters using a potentiometer, there are important
factors that need to be considered in designing or functioning of the instrument.
These are;
Heat dissipating capacity: The maximum input voltage is limited on account
of potentiometer heat dissipating capacity and is give by;
Vin  PRT , where RT = Total Resistance of the potentiometer, P= Power P=IV (Electric Power)

rating of a resistor (P= 5W at 200c) Using Ohm’s law I=V/R,

The loading effect: Potentiometers are linear devices how ever their linearity
is affected by loading effect thus a care must be taken to avoid a loading effect
due to internal resistance of next stage elements such as; measuring
instrument like voltmeter(if used to measure the output voltage).
The resolution and sensitivity.
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•Example: Consider the Linear displacement measurement circuit of fig above with
input voltage of 5-volt the output voltage is 2.5-volt. The total resistance element
length is 100mm. The Linear displacement of an object causes the sliding contact to
move such that the output voltage 2.65-volt. Determine the displacement of the
object and the direction to which it moves.
• Solution
• Given Vo=2.5,Vin=5 and L=100mm, the displacement X can be obtained from the
eqn
• Vo=

If the output is now 2.65,

X==53mm 19
 Resistive sensor: Resistance thermometer

•Resistance thermometers are temperature dependent resistors made from a

conductive or semiconductor element.
•Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and
thermistor are the most common transducers that vary
their resistance when subjected to temperature variation.
(a) Resistance-temperature detector (RTD) RTD PT100 Temperature Sensor

• Resistance-temperature detector is a temperature sensing device whose

resistance increases with temperature, also referred as positive temperature co-
efficient (PTC).
• As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum
resistance thermometers (PRTs). 20
• Platinum RTD has a nominal resistance of 100 Ω at

•The mathematical relation between the resistance and temperature of

Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) is given by:

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 Measurement using RTD

Measurement using RTD has to consider the following

factors to over come inaccuracy

Since RTD is a passive resistive device, a current is
required to pass through the device to produce a measurable voltage.
This current causes the RTD to heat internally and hence causes as an error,
this heating is called as self heating.

Lead wire resistance can also be a factor because RTDs are low-resistance
devices, care must be taken in wiring and measuring RTDs to avoid errors
caused by lead resistance

Mechanical strain on the resistance thermometer can also cause inaccuracy

Resistance thermometers are constructed in a number of forms and offer greater
stability, accuracy and repeatability advantages and limitations

•Advantages of platinum resistance thermometers:

High accuracy
Wide operating range
Suitable for precision applications

•Limitations:
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660
Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small
temperature changes and have a slower response time.
However, thermistors have a smaller temperature range and stability. 23
 Thermistor
•A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies

significantly (more than in standard resistors) with temperature.

• Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the

material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs
use pure metals.
• The temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger
temperature ranges,
• while thermistors typically achieve a higher precision within a limited
temperature range [usually -90 to 130

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 •The resistance RT of a thermistor at a temperature (T) can be expressed
by the equation:

•, where β is constant of the material, k=Ro

•Depending on the sign of k thermistors are classified into two types.

•If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and

the device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or
posistor.

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 •If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and
the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
•Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k as close to
zero as possible (smallest possible k), so that their resistance remains nearly
constant over a wide temperature range.

Figure . Thermistor resistance-temperature characteristic and types

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 Application of thermistors
• PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements for
fuses.
 NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements.
 NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive applications. For example, they monitor things
like coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine and provide data to the dashboard.
 They can be also used to monitor temperature of an incubator.
 Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the temperature
of battery packs while charging.

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• Example: a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) has a resistance of
100ῼ at and its temperature coefficient of resistance at is .
a. find the resistance at
b. if the thermometer has a resistance of 150ῼ, find the temperature?
Solution:
(- ῼ

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 Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges
•Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More
specifically, strain (ε) is defined as the fractional change in length,
•A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of
electrical conductance and its dependence on not merely the electrical conductivity
of a conductor, which is a property of its material, but also the conductor's geometry.
•When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such
that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer,
changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end.
• Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will
broaden and shorten changes that decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end. 29
 Figure :Stress and strain:
(a) Effect of tensile stress (b) Effect of compressive strain

Poisson Ratio
Poisson ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction (or expansion) strain to
longitudinal extension strain in the direction of stretching force. Tensile
deformation is considered positive and compressive deformation is considered
negative. The definition of Poisson ratio contains a minus sign so that normal
materials have a positive ratio.
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Cont.….

Strain gauge
•A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain, expressed
quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF).
•Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to the
fractional change in length (strain):

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Cont.….
• Is a secondary transducer that senses tensile or
compressive strain in a particular direction at a point on
the surface of a body or structure
• Used to measure force, pressure, displacement
R  R (e)
• Where e=l/l is the strain
• The resistance of an unstrained conductor is given as
l
R
A

• Under strained condition, resistance of conductor changes

by R because of l, A, and/or 
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Cont.…
· To find the change in resistance R,
R R R
R  l  A  
l A 
 l l
 l  2 A  
A A A
· Dividing both sides by R, we get the fractional change as
R l A 
  
R l A 

· Let us define el = l/l as the longitudinal stain and eT as the

transversal strain
· Also assume that eT = -el ,where  is the Poisson’s Ratio
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Contd.

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Cont.…
• Then, Gauge Factor, G is defined as
R/R R/R
G 
l / l eL

• G is also known as Strain-Sensitivity factor; rearranging

terms, we get
 / 
G = (1 + 2 ) +
eL
/
eL
• Where is the Piezoresistive term

• For most metals, the Piezoresistive term is about 0.4 and

0.2 <  < 0.5
• Thus, Gauge factor for metallic stain gauges is in the range 2.0–
2.5 (not sensitive)
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 Cont.…
• Sensitive measurements require very high Gauge factors in the range of
100-300
• Such factor can be obtained from semiconductor strain gauges
• Due to the significant contribution from the Piezoresistive term

Example : A resistance wire strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is bounded to a

steel structural member subjected to a stress of 100 MN/m2. The modulus of
elasticity of steel is 200 GN/m2. Calculate the % change in the value of the gauge
resistance due to applied stress

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SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE
Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge factor
is desired.

 A high gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance that

can be measured with good accuracy.

The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is applied to it.

The semiconductor gauge depends for their action upon the piezo-resistive
effect i.e. change in value of resistance due to change in resistivity.
Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for semiconductor
gauges.
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Thank You for your
attention!
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