OAN551 SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS

PART A

UNIT -1 INTRODUCTION
1. What do you mean by calibration?
The relationship between the physical measurement variable input and the
signal variable (output) for a specific sensor is known as the Calibration of the
sensor. Typically, a sensor (or an entire instrument system) is calibrated by
providing a known physical input to the system and recording the output.

2. Classify transducers.
 Based on the physical effect employed.
 Based on the physical quantity they convert
 Based on source of energy for their output

3. Explain primary and secondary transducer with an example.

Primary transducer: When input signal is directly sensed by
transducer and physical phenomenon is converted into electrical form
directly then such transducer called primary transducer.
Example: Thermistor
Secondary transducer: When input signal is directly sensed first by
some sensor and then its output given as input to a transducer for
conversion into electrical form, then it’s called secondary transducer.
Example: LVDT for used pressure measurement by using bourdon tube

4. Explain the criteria for selection of transducer for a particular

application.
 Nature of measurement
 Range
 Loading effect
 Environmental considerations
 Measuring system compatibility
 Cost and availability
 Errors
 Calibration
5. What is meant by active transducer and passive transducer with an
example?
Passive transducers: Passive transducers are those that need to be
excited by electrical supply in order to recognize their response to the
measurand. Ex: Strain gauge
Active transducers: Active transducers do not require any external
sources of supply for their operation.
Ex: Piezoelectric transducer, Photovoltaic transducer & Thermocouple
(Itself acts as source of emf)

6. Define sensitivity &linearity.

The sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio between a change in the
output value and the change in the input value that causes that output
change.
Linearity is a measure of the maximum deviation of the plotted transducer
response from a specified straight line.

7. Define resolution.
When the input to a transducer is increased slowly from some arbitrary
value, the change in output is not detected at all until a certain input
increment is exceeded. This increment is defined as the resolution.

8. Define accuracy and precision.

Accuracy is the closeness to true value whereas precision is the closeness
amongst the readings. Precision is the degree of closeness with which a
given value may be repeatedly measured.

9. Define Threshold.
Threshold is the amount of measurement change required before a
measuring instrument reacts to a change in measurement output or produces
a specified result.

10. Define probable error with respect to measurement.

Probable error is due to random error. It is the coefficient of correlation that
supports in finding out about the accurate values of the coefficients
11. List out the parameters on which sensor classified.
 Transduction principles using physical or chemical effects
 Primary input quantity
 Material and technology (Image sensor, Motion detectors &
Biosensors)
 Application (Industrial process control & automation & Non industrial
use - Automobiles, Medical products, Aircraft & Consumer electronics)
 Property (Flow, Temperature, Pressure & Acceleration)

12. What are the output signals of sensors?

 Analog voltage
 PWM
 Serial digital

13. Identify what are the types of errors?

 Gross error
 Systematic errors
o Instrumental errors
o Environmental error
o Static error
 Random error

14. Define i) Sensors ii) Transducers.

Sensors: a device converts the physical or non-physical signal which is to be
measured into an electrical signal which can be processed or transmitted
electronically.
 Transducer: A transducer is a device which converts a non electrical quantity
to be measured into a proportional electrical signal (easy to process and
transmit)

15. Draw the functional block diagram of a measurement system.

16. Define the following terms in the context of normal frequency

.distribution of data.
i) mean value : Average value of the readings
ii) Deviation: Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the
arithmetic mean of a group of readings.
iii) Median: Median is also used to indicate the most probable value
of the measured quantity when a set of readings are taken.
iv) Mode is the value which occurs most frequently in a set of
observations and around which other items of the set cluster densely
 UNIT -2 MOTIONS, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS
PART-A

1. Is a potentiometer active or passive transducer? Justify your answer.

Potentiometer is a passive transducer because it makes use of an external
power supply for its operation.

2. Draw any two potentiometer circuits used for displacement

measurement.

3. What are the different materials of the wire and corresponding once for
jockey in potentiometric sensors?

Wire Jockey

Copper -Nickel alloy like constantan Gold , Gold -silver

Nickel- Chromium alloys such as Ni40-Ag 60, 10% graphite in Cu

nichrome

Silver palladium alloys Platinum- iridium

4. What is synchro? Explain about its principle of operation. Where it is

used?
A synhros is an electromagnetic transducer which is commonly used to
convert the angular position of a shaft into an electric signal. They are
used primarily in angle measurements and are commonly applied in
 control engineering as parts of servomechanisms, machine tools,
antennas, etc.

5. State any two applications of Micosyn.

 Gyroscopes
 Microsyn used for positioning a mirror in a satellite camera.

6. List out the advantages and disadvantages of LVDT
.Advantages:
 High range (1.25 mm to 250 mm)
 No frictional losses
 High input and high sensitivity
 Low hysteresis
 Low power consumption
 Direct conversion to electrical signals
Disadvantages:
 LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require a setup
to protect them from stray magnetic fields.
 They are affected by vibrations and temperature.

7. Mention any four applications of LVDT.

 LVDT pressure transducer
 LVDT load cells
 Displacement measurement & LVDT gage heads
 LVDT Pneumatic Servo follower

8. Mention few applications of RVDT.
 It is used where rotational or angular displacements are to be
measured.
 In throttle mechanism of aeroplane.

9. Difference between LVDT & RVDT.

Basis for
LVDT RVDT
Comparison

Definition Converts the linear Used for measuring the

motions into angular displacement
electrical signals
 Basis for
LVDT RVDT
Comparison

Stands for Linear Variable Rotatory Variable Differential

Differential Transformer
Transformer

Core shaped Rectangle Cam

Sensitivity 2.4mv per volt per 2 to 3 mv per volt per degree

degree of rotation of rotation.

Measuring ±100μm to ±25cm Upto ±40ᵒ

Range

Input Voltage 1V to 24V RMS upto 3V RMS

10. What is encoder?

An encoder is a sensing device that provides feedback. Encoders
convert motion to an electrical signal that can be read by some type of control
device in a motion control system, such as a counter or PLC. The encoder
sends a feedback signal that can be used to determine position, count, speed,
or direction.

11. Write a short note on resolver.

Resolver is an analog position sensor that is absolute over a single turn.
These are induction type devices designed to transform angular rotor position
into a set of signals which vary with sine and cosine of the rotor position with
respect to the position of a set of stators.

12. Elaborate the applications of resolver.

  It is used in vector resolution, which is a process of splitting the vector into
the various parts.
 It is used for determining the vector angle and component.
 The resolver is used for controlling the amplitude of pulses and also in
pulse resolution.
 It is used for phase shifting

13. Define LIDAR.

Light Detection and Ranging—is a remote sensing method used to examine
the surface of the Earth. LIDAR uses short pulses of coherent laser light, with
very short wavelengths and high instant capacity.

14. List out the applications of LIDAR.

 Flood Modeling
 Pollution Modeling
 Mapping and Cartography
 Urban Planning
 Coastline Management
 Transport Planning

15. Categorize the different scanning methods used in LIDAR.

 Oscillating mirror -Ground pattern -Z shaped, sinusoidal
 Rotating Polygon -Ground pattern -Parallel lines
 Nutating mirror or Palmer scan -Ground pattern – Elliptical

16. What is an RF beacon?

A radio beacon (rarely electromagnetic beacon) is a kind of beacon, a device
which marks a fixed location and allows direction finding equipment to
find relative bearing. Radio beacons transmit a radio signal which is picked up
by finding systems on ships, aircraft and vehicles to determine the
direction to the beacon

17. List out the application of ultrasonic sensor.

 Thread or wire break detection
 Liquid level control
 Loop control
  Roll diameter, tension control, winding and unwind
 Thru beam detection for high-speed counting

18. Write a short note on Bluetooth technology.

 A Bluetooth technology is a high speed low powered wireless
technology link that is designed for short-range radio communications.
 Wireless signals transmitted with Bluetooth cover short distances,
typically up to 30 feet (10 meters).
 Bluetooth supports point to point and point to multi-point
connections, which can be established automatically and
dynamically between Bluetooth units

19. List out the applications of Bluetooth technology.

a. Cordless desktop
b. Headset
c. Automatic synchronization
d. Multimedia transfer

20. What is GPS and also mention the application.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation
system that provides location and time information in all weather conditions,
anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to
four or more GPS satellites.
The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users
around the world. It is maintained by the United States government and is
freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver

21. List out the three types of operational segment used in GPS.
a. Space segment
b. Control segment
c. User segment

22. What is Accelerometer? List out its type.

 An accelerometer is an electromechanical device used to measure
acceleration forces such as static or dynamic
a. Capacitive Accelerometer
b. Piezoelectric Accelerometer

23. Define motion sensor.

A motion sensor is a device that detects physical movement on a device or
within an environment. It has the ability to detect and capture physical and/or
kinetic movements in real time.
 UNIT -3 FORCES, MAGNETIC AND HEADING SENSORS
PART-A
1. What is the principle of strain gauge?
Strain gauge works under the principle of piezoresistive effect.
The piezoresistive effect is a change in the electrical resistivity of a
semiconductor or metal when mechanical strain is applied

2. Enumerate different types of strain gauge.

 Unbounded metal strain gauges
 Bonded metal wire strain gauges
 Bonded metal foil strain gauges
 Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges
 Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauges
 Bonded semiconductor strain gauges
 Diffused metal strain gauges

3. List out the advantages & disadvantages of Hall effect sensors
Advantages:
 Non-contact device
 Small size
 high resolution
Disadvantages:
 High sensitivity to temperature changes 
 Variation of hall coefficient from plate to plate, hence requires individual
calibration in each case


4. Compare the gauge factor of metal wire and semiconductor strain
gauge.
Semiconductor strain gauge Resistance strain gauge
High gauge factor Low gauge factor
Does not shows linearity and Shows linearity and temperature
temperature stability stability

5. What is meant by Gauge factor?

Gauge factor or strain factor of a strain gauge is the ratio of relative change in
electrical resistance R, to the mechanical strain. The gauge factor is defined as
∆𝑅 ∆𝜌
𝑅
GF= = 𝜌 +1+2γ
∈ ∈
Where ԑ strain ,γ-Poisson ratio ∆R change in strain gauge resistance, ϱ-
Specific resistivity

6. List the applications of strain gauge.

 Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and
diagnosis on machines and failure analysis.
 They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing,
residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending
and deflection measurement, compression and tension measurement and
strain measurement.
 Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and
safety in automotives. In particular, they are employed for force
measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press and as
impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.

7. Define magneto resistive effect.
Magneto resistance is the tendency of a material (preferably ferromagnetic) to
change the value of its electrical resistance in an externally-
applied magnetic field.

8. What is Magnetic compass? How does it work?

A compass is an instrument used for navigation and orientation that shows
direction relative to the geographic cardinal directions (or points).

9. List out the applications of magneto resistive sensor.

 Wheel speed sensors
 Linear displacement measurement
 Current measurement
 Earth magnetic field detection for compass and navigation applications
 Metal detection
10. What is load cell?
A load cell is a type of force gauge. It consists of a transducer that is used to
create an electrical signal whose magnitude is directly proportional to the
force being measured.

11. What is magnetic sensor? List out it types.

A magnetic sensor is a transducer that converts a magnetic field into an
electric signal.
Magnetic field sensors are used to measure magnetic flux and/or the strength
and direction of a magnetic field.
Types:
 Magnetoresistive
 Hall effect
 Flux gate or coil sensor
 Superconducting QUantum Interference Device(SQUID)
 Magnetostrictive

12. List out the advantages & disadvantages of magneto resistive sensor
Advantages:
 Non contact operation so there is no wear and friction. Hence unlimited
number of operating cycles
 high reliability due to their rugged construction
 Due to its high sensitivity it can be used to measure weak magnetic
fields
 Can be used in harsh environments
 Small size & Fast response
Disadvantages:
● Sensitive to interfering magnetic fields. Very strong magnetic field can
damage the sensor
● Temperature drift
● Limited linear range
● Poor temperature characteristics

13. Define Hall effect.

When a Hall element is subjected to a magnetic field in one direction, an
electric current in another direction which is perpendicular to the direction of
the magnetic flux, then an electric potential is generated in a third direction
which is mutually perpendicular to the other two directions.

The magnitude of the voltage generated depends on the strength of the

magnetic field, the strength of the current and the property of the conductor.

14. State the principle of current sensor.

A Hall Effect current sensor allows non-contact detection of direct and
alternating currents, using a hall element.
This minimizes power loss of the target current circuit and has a simple
structure with high reliability.

15. What is Heading sensor?

An earth's magnetic field sensor, a Compass that provides
the Heading information from which the Autopilot computes steering
commands. The Heading Sensor is central to the control of
your Autopilot. Autopilot performance and, in many systems, Radar and Chart
Plotter performance, will depend more on Heading sensor accuracy.
16. What is gyroscope sensor?
A gyroscope is a device used for measuring or maintaining orientation and
angular velocity.
It is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation (spin axis) is free to
assume any orientation by itself. It works under the principle of
conservation of angular momentum.

17. List out the applications of Gyroscope.

 Inertial navigation systems
 MEMS gyroscopes
 Used to maintain direction in tunnel mining
 Gyrocompasses
 Computer Pointing Devices

18. What is inclinometer? List the applications of it.
An inclinometer, or tilt sensor, is a measurement device that uses gravity to
measure the inclination of an object
● Civil Engineering -structural health monitoring.
● Adjusting a solar panel to the optimal angle to maximize its output.
● Showing a deviation from the true vertical or horizontal.
● Surveying, to measure an angle of inclination or elevation.
● Robotics
● Automotive system

19. How to select the adhesives used to bond the gauge?

  Transmit the strain fully from the member surface to the gauge.
 Have high insulation property
 Have high mechanical strength
 Have low thermal insulation

20. What are the factors which influence the use of inclinometers?
 Gravity
 Temperature (drift), zero offset, linearity, vibration, shock, cross-axis
sensitivity, acceleration/deceleration.
 A clear line of sight between the user and the measured point is needed.
 UNIT - 4 OPTICAL, PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE SENSORS
PART-A
1. Define piezoelectric effect.
The main principle of a piezoelectric transducer is that a force, when applied
on the quartz crystal, produces electric charges on the crystal surface. It is
known as direct effect piezoelectricity.

The same crystal materials would be able to produce a mechanical

deformation (or) force when an electric field is applied to them. This is called
the inverse effect of piezoelectricity.

2. List the materials used in piezoelectric transducers.

• Quartz (Crystal)
• Barium titanate
• Zinc oxide
• Aluminum nitride
• Lead zirconate
3. List out the applications of piezoelectric transducer.
a. It can be used for measuring force, pressure and displacement in terms
of voltage.
b. Due to its excellent frequency response, it is normally used as an
accelerometer, where the output is in the order of (1-30) mV per gravity
of acceleration.

4. What is lead wire compensation in RTD?

 RTDs are resistive devices, so lead wire resistance directly affects its
accuracy. The error can be quite large; depending on the lead wire resistance
.There is a method to compensate for the lead wire resistance

 2 Wire method
 3 Wire method
 4 Wire method
5. What is meant by self heating error in a resistance thermometer?
Resistance thermometers need to have a current passing through them
whichis likely to cause an error often termed as the self heating error. The
heat,produced in the sensor because of this current flows towards the zone
whosetemperature is to be measured through the surrounding walls and
sheaths.

6. Mention the materials used for thermistors.

Mixture of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and
uranium.

7. Mention few applications of thermistors.

 Applications include temperature measurement, compensation and
control
 Used in air conditioner
 Used in detection of fire alarms
 Measurement of composition of gases
8. Draw the resistivity versus temperature characteristics of thermistors.

9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of resistance

thermometers?
Advantages:
● They are suitable for measuring large temperature differences and high
temperatures.
● Well designed resistance thermometers have excellent stability.
 ● Unlike thermocouples, they do not need a reference junction and this
favors them in many aerospace and some industrial applications
Disadvantages:
● The resistance element is usually more expensive than a
thermocouple.
● They need auxiliary apparatus and power supply.
● There are errors due to self heating and thermoelectric effect of the
resistive element and connecting leads.

10. What are the features of smart sensors?

A smart sensor is a system-in-package in which a sensor and dedicated
interface electronics are realized. It is also known as intelligent sensor.

11. Write any two applications of smart sensor?

• MEMS and process control

• Biomedical applications
• Pattern reorganization
• Finger print sensor
• Industry for monitor pressure, temperature and humidity
12. List ten properties possessed by smart sensors.
a. Automatic ranging and calibration through a built in digital system.
b. Auto-acquisition and storage of calibration constants in local memory of
the field device.
c. Auto configuration and verification of hardware for correct operation
following internal checks
d. Auto correction of offsets, time and temperature drifts.
e. Self tuning control algorithm
f. Auto linearization of non linear transfer characteristics
g. Control programme may be locally stored
h. Control is implementable through signal bus and a host system.
i. Conditional monitoring is also used for fault diagnosis.
j. Communication through a serial bus.

13. What is meant by MEMS?

MEMS- Micro Electro Mechanical System are micro miniature devices
consisting of Microelectronic and mechanical components such as
 sensors, actuators, spring , cantilever and signal processing integrated
and embedded into a single chip .
14. List out the advantages of MEMS.

• Microminiature size and weight

• Large surface-area-to-volume ratio (when compared in the same
measurement
• units)
• Large-scale integration (LSI) of components/circuits
• High performance
• High speed (20 ns switching speeds)
• Low power consumption
• Easy mass production
• Low cost (in mass production)

15. Enumerate the applications of MEMS.

 Automotive (e.g., accelerometers and gyroscopes or IMUs for airbag
deployment, handling control, safety and collision avoidance, ride quality,
and dynamic stability, brakes, car tire pressure sensors)
 Biomedical applications ( micro disposable blood pressure sensors,
sensors for intraocular pressure in eyes, microphone and hearing aids)
 Computers, consumer electronics, and home appliances (touch screen
controllers;inkjet printer nozzles and cartridges; IMUs and microphones for
cell phones, laptops, tablets, game controllers, personal media players,
digital cameras)
 Optical MEMS (micromirrors, scanners, picoprojectors, fog-free lenses,
light sensors for IR imaging)

16. What are nanosensors?

Nano-sensors are nanoscale devices that measure physical quantities and
convert those quantities to signals that can be detected and analyzed.

17. List out the development of Nano-sensors.

• Integration of nano particles into gas sensors.

• Implantation of biological motors into non biological environments.
• Development of chemical synthetic methods to realize nano crystals
18. Write a short notes on fiber optic transducer?
Fiber optic sensors are fiber-based devices that use optical fibers to detect
certain quantities such as mechanical strain or temperature, concentrations of
chemical species, acceleration, rotations, pressure, vibrations and
displacements. These sensors are mainly used in remote sensing
applications.

19. What is tactile sensor?

Tactile sensors are used to measure contact forces and to characterize
surface profiles and roughness.

20. List the types of radiation sensors.

• Photoelectric cell such as photoemissive cell.

• Photoemf cell such as photovoltaic cell
• Photoconductive cell such as light sensitive resistors.
• X-rays and nuclear radiation detection such as Geiger-Muller counter.

21. What is the difference between thermistor and RTD?

Sensor type Thermistor RTD
Temperature -100 to 325o C -200-650oC
range
Linearity Exponential Linear
Response time Fast Slow
Cost Low to moderate High

22. List the materials used in RTD.

Nickel, Copper & Platinum

23. What is negative temperature coefficient thermistor? List few of its

applications.
A negative coefficient for a material means that its resistance decreases with
an increase in temperature.
• Automotive applications
• Food handling and Processing industry
• Very low resistance thermometer

24. State the thermoelectric law.

 Law of intermediate temperature: The emf for a couple, each element of which
is homogeneous in constitution, with junction at temperatures T1 and T2 is not
affected by temperatures elsewhere in the circuit.
Law of intermediate metals: If a third homogeneous metal is inserted
anywhere in the couple without affecting the junctions J1 and J2 and their
temperatures T1 and T2, and the new junctions of the inserted metal having
identical temperature, the thermocouple remains unaffected.
Law of homogeneous circuit: If the circuit is made of a single homogeneous
metal, no current flows through the applications of heat alone and no
thermocouple develops.

25. List six commonly used techniques for producing thin film sensors.
A number of techniques are used for thin film deposition, such as
● Thermal evaporation
○ Resistive heating
○ Electron beam heating
● Sputter deposition.
● Chemical vapour deposition.
● Plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition.
● Metallo organic deposition.
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UNIT -5 SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND DAQ SYSTEMS

PART - A
1. What is signal conditioning? Explain the processes in signal conditioning.
Signal conditioner modifies the output of the transducer into a convenient form
so that it can be further processed. The conditioning of the transducer output
signal may include
 Amplification
 Demodulation
 Filtering
 Linearization
 Analog to digital conversion

2. What are the needs for signal conditioning?

 The signal can be weak and has to be magnified.

 It may have interference as a noise which is to be filtered.
 The non linear signal has to be manipulated to transform into linear signal.
 Analog to digital form may be required.
 The processor is to be protected from the erratic input signals of excessive
voltage and wrong polarity.

3. What is meant by data acquisition system?

Data acquisition systems are intended to collect the output signals from the
transducers, process them suitably, and provide output signals of a suitable
range linearly related to the measurand.
The sensors and the data acquisition systems are interfaced by the signal
conditioning elements.

4. What is data logging?

It has a microprocessor or computer based control system where the analogue or
digital inputs are received serially after scanning and then processed and sent to
storage units or printed or displayed.
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5. Define operational amplifier.

Operational amplifier is a high gain d. c. device that magnifies the input signal
up to an order of 106 or more.

6. What are the various possible inputs to an operational amplifier?

a. Negative inverting input
b. Positive non inverting input
c. Negative voltage supply
d. Positive voltage supply

7. Write short notes on filtering.

Filtering is the process of removing certain band of frequencies from a signal
and permitting the remaining.
 Pass Band- range of frequency passed by the filter
 Stop band- range of frequency not passed by filter
 Cut off frequency – boundary between stop band and pass band

8. List the different types of filters.

 Low pass filters
 High pass filters
 Band pass filters
 Band stop filters
 Low pass passive filter
 Low pass active filter

9. Differentiate between active filter and passive filter
PARAMETERS ACTIVE FILTER PASSIVE FILTER

Passive components like

Active components like op-
Composed of resistor, inductor and
amp, transistor etc.
capacitor etc.
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External power
Required Not required
supply

Sensitivity More sensitive Comparatively less sensitive.

Cost High Comparatively low.

10. Differentiate between high pass filter and low pass filter.
PARAMETERS HIGH PASS FILTER LOW PASS FILTER

It is a circuit which allows the It is a circuit which allows the

Definition frequencies above cut off frequency below cut off
frequency to pass through it. frequency to pass through it.

Operating Higher than the cut off Lower than the cut off
Frequency frequency. frequency.
In audio amplifiers, low In communications circuit
Applications
noise amplifiers etc. as anti-aliasing filter.

11. List out the sensing component required in automobile systems.

a. Engine control
b. Safety & reliability
c. Fuel consumption control
d. Room and operational comfort control
12. Mention the sensors used for Automobile system.
a. Flow rate sensors
b. Pressure sensors
c. Temperature sensors
d. Oxygen sensors
e. Torque and position sensors

13. Categorize the basic requirement on which home appliances sensor

designed.
a. Low cost
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b. Small size
c. Light weight
d. Reliability & efficiency
e. Easy handling

14. List out the sensor applications for Home appliances.

a. Mechanical sensors
i. Bellows used in refrigerators
ii. Potentiometers used in washing machine
b. Chemical sensors
i. Humidity sensors in microwave ovens, clothes dryers & air
conditioners
c. Magnetic sensors
i. Widely used in electronic gadget in entertainment
ii. Hall sensors in VCR cameras and tape recorders
d. Temperature sensors
i. Thermistors used in ovens, refrigerators, dishwashers, Air
conditioners.
ii. Infrared sensors are employed in microwave ovens
iii. Bimetallic elements find use in gas ovens and rice cookers
e. Radiation sensors
i. Photodiodes and phototransistors are used as the major elements
in refrigerators, washing machine and Air conditioners
ii. Photo resistors are used in TV sets.
iii. Pyroelectric IR sensor used in microwave ovens.

15. How the water level is sensed in microprocessor controlled washing

machine?
In a microprocessor controlled washing machine, water level is sensed using
optics principles that comprise units like a light emitting diode, a
photodiode/phototransistor, and a light slit. The light slit is moved by the water
level.
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16. List out the sensors used in washing machine , video cassette recorders &
refrigerators.

a. Spin dry system in washing machine is a PZT ceramic sensors

b. Water level in washing system is sensed using optic principles
c. Photodiode- LED assembly used for frost detection in refrigerators
d. Video cassette recorders use Hall and Magnetoresistive sensors.

17. What are the three important categories in home automation.

a. House control
b. Energy control/optimization
c. Home security

18. Mention the sensors used for Aerospace systems.

a. Static pressure sensors
b. Temperature sensors
c. Fluid velocity sensors
d. Monitoring strain, force, thrust and acceleration
e. Sensing direction of Air flow

19. Draw a block diagram to show how sensors interact with the automated
manufacturing process.

20. List out the sensors used for sensing distance in Manufacturing.
a. Tactile sensor
b. Electrical sensors such as inductive and capacitive
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c. Optical sensors using IR, UV, visible, and laser radiations

d. Acoustic sensors using ultrasonic principle

21. List out the sensor functions used in production process.

a. Distance sensing
b. Contour sensing
c. Machine vision
d. Machine diagnosis
e. Process parameters

22. Mention the sensors used for environmental monitoring.

a. For sensing non-ionizing radiations thermopiles are used
b. For visible and ultraviolet radiations, photovoltaic cells, photodiodes are
used.
c. NOx,CO,SO2 pollutants are detected by potentiometric methods.

23. Under environmental monitoring which are the important parameters

accounted?
a. Collection of sample representative enough of the environmental pollution
content.
b. Pre treatment of the sample using extraction, separation and so on
c. Analysis pollution in sample and expressing it in level of concentration.