Follow Temperature Sensors

6- Thermistors
Thermistors are temperature sensitive resistors made of semiconductor
materials. Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance
with increasing temperature. The material used in thermistor is generally
a semiconductor material such as a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of
metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel)
Thermistors can have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) or positive
temperature coefficient (PTC). NTC thermistors are generally made from
metallic oxides, while PTC thermistors are formed from barium and strontium
titanate mixtures.

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Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip. It
has a small bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or
glass material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit through two leads. To
protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a stainless steel tube.

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Comparison between RTD and Thermistor
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Construction Because the thermistor is a bulk semiconductor, it can be fabricated
in many forms. Thus, common forms include discs, beads, and rods, varying in
size from a bead 1 mm in diameter to a disc several centimeters in diameter and
several centimeters thick.

Sensitivity The sensitivity of the thermistors is a significant factor in their

application. Changes in resistance of 10% per °C are not uncommon.

Range there are three range limitation effects:

(1) melting or deterioration of the semiconductor
(2) damage of encapsulation material
(3) insensitivity at higher temperatures.

The semiconductor material may melt or otherwise deteriorate as the temperature is

raised. This condition generally limits the upper temperature to less than
300°C. Because of high sensitivity, the lower limit is -50oC to -l00oC. 4
Response Time for the smallest bead thermistors in an oil bath (good thermal
contact), a response of 0.5 second is typical. The same thermistor in still air will
respond with a typical response time of 10 seconds. Large disc or rod
thermistors may have response times of 10 seconds or more, even with good
thermal contact.

Highly non linear

Signal Conditioning Because a thermistor exhibits such a large change in

resistance with temperature, there are many possible circuit applications. In
many cases, however, a bridge circuit is used because the nonlinear features of
the thermistor make its use difficult as an actual measurement device.

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7- Semiconductor devices ( Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors )

a) Temperature sensitive voltage source (LM35CZ)

LM35 produces an output that is proportional to Celsius temperature

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• The resolution of this device is 1 oC.
• Voltage linearly increase by 10 mV for each degree Celsius.
• The sensor gives meaningful output for temperature range of –40 (-400
mV) to 110 oC (1.1 V)
• The output is adjusted to 0 V for 0 oC
• Temperatures below zero provide a negative output voltage

Disadvantage
Voltage may drop over long connecting wires

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b) Temperature sensitive current source (AD590J)
● The AD580 Provides a stable 2.5V output voltage for input voltages between
4.5V and 30V
● The AD580J, AD580K, AD580L and AD580M are specified for operation over
the temperature range of (0 oC to 70 oC).

● The AD580S, AD580T and AD580U are made to operate over the temperature
range of (-55 oC to 125 oC) due to different output voltage tolerance.

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It produces a current of 1 μV/ 1 oC
T = [100 x V] ok

Subtracting 273.15 mV (AD580 Volt reference) will give 0 V at 0 oC

No voltage drop over long connecting wire

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6. Non-contact Pyro-Couple Compact Temperature Sensor

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The given measured spot size contains 90% of the energy detected by the sensor.
We normally recommend the target is at least twice as large as the given measured
spot for maximum accuracy. Sensors may be used at longer distances than the
above diagrams show. There is no maximum measurement distance in clean air;
this is because the Pyro-Couple detects only the wavelengths of infrared radiation
that are not absorbed by the atmosphere.
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Liquid Level Sensors

Integral to process control in many industries, level measurement sensors fall into
two main types. Point level measurement sensors are used to mark a single
discrete liquid height–a preset level condition. Generally, this type of sensor
functions as a high alarm, signaling an overfill condition, or as a marker for a low
alarm condition.

Continuous level sensors are more sophisticated and can provide level
monitoring of an entire system. They measure fluid levels within a range, rather
than at one point, producing an analog output that directly correlates to the story in
the vessel. To create a level management system, the output signal is linked to a
process control loop and to a visual indicator.
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1- Discrete-level detectors
To determine that a liquid has reached a certain level.

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2- Continuous-Level Detector

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Float Element Type Level Transducers
A float element type liquid level transducer is the most common simple method
to measure liquid levels.

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As the liquid level rises in the tank, the float rises. It causes to move the wiper to
over the potential divider. The output terminals of the potential divider are
connected to a voltmeter. The output voltage is increased as the float rises. That is
the voltage will be proportional to the liquid level.

Advantages
•Simple in construction.
•Easy to operate.
•Works at a large temperature range.

Disadvantages
•Not suitable in moderate pressure.
•Design of the float should be selected properly.

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Ultrasonic Level Transducers
The ultrasonic level transducers work by the time-of-flight principle. It is a method
used for measuring the distance between a sensor and an object.

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The ultrasonic transmitter emits an ultrasonic pulse beam toward the liquid. This
pulse is reflected to the ultrasonic receiver by the liquid surface. The time
difference between the transmission and reception is measured and calibrated to
distance.

Advantages
•Reliable.
•There are no moving parts.
•Can be used in high humidity.
•Material density or conductivity is not affected.

Disadvantages
•Dust particles may create distortion.
•Vibration or high noise will affect the result.
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Measurement of non-conductive material

The two concentric cylinders act as electrodes and the non-conducting liquid act as
the dielectric medium 22
Flow Sensors

❑ Restriction flow sensors (Δp is measured)

❑ Obstruction flow sensors ( displacement or velocity is measured)

❑ Magnetic flow meter

❑ The Ultrasonic Flowmeter

❑ Laser Doppler

❑ Hot Wire Anenometer

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1- Restriction flow sensors (Δp is measured)

Liquid flow is generally measured by applying Bernoulli's principle of fluid flow

through a constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the
pressure drop measured. The fluid flow volume is proportional to the square root
of the pressure difference at the two ends of the constriction. There are various types
of fluid flow measurement devices being used in manufacturing automation such as
Orifice plate, Turbine meters, etc.

Orifice plate

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Venturi-meter

Pitot tube

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2- Obstruction flow sensors ( displacement or velocity is measured)
Turbine meter
turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ±0.3%. It has a multi-blade rotor
mounted centrally in the pipe along which the flow is to be measured. The
fluid flow rotates the rotor. Accordingly, the magnetic pickup coil counts the
number of magnetic pulses generated due to the distortion of the magnetic field
by the rotor blades. The angular velocity is proportional to the number of
pulses and fluid flow is proportional to the angular velocity.

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Variable Area Flowmeter or Rotameter
The rotameter consists of a vertically oriented glass (or plastic) tube with a
larger end at the top, and a metering float that is free to move within the tube.
The fluid flow causes the float to rise in the tube as the upward pressure
differential and buoyancy of the fluid overcome the effect of gravity.
The float rises until the annular area between the float and tube increases
sufficiently to allow a state of dynamic equilibrium between the upward
differential pressure and buoyancy factors, and downward gravity factors.

The height of the float is an indication of the flow rate. The tube can be
calibrated and graduated with inappropriate flow units. The accuracy may be as
good as 1% of the full-scale rating.

Magnetic floats can be used for alarm and signal transmission functions
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3- Magnetic flow meter
Hall Effect principles
Hall effect sensors work on the principle that
when a beam of charged particles passes through
a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and
the current beam is deflected from its straight-
line path. Thus one side of the disc will become
negatively charged and the other side will be a
positive charge. This charge separation generates
a potential difference which is the measure of the
distance of the magnetic field from the disc
carrying current.

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 Magnetic flow meters operate based upon Faraday's Law of electromagnetic
induction, which states that a voltage will be induced in a conductor moving
through a magnetic field.

 Faraday's Law: E = kBDV

 The magnitude of the induced voltage E is directly proportional to the velocity

of the conductor V, conductor width D, and the strength of the magnetic field B.

 Magnetic field coils are placed on opposite sides of a pipe to generate a

magnetic field.

 As the liquid moves through the field with average velocity V, electrodes
sense the induced voltage.
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 An insulating liner prevents the signal from shorting to the pipe wall.

 The output voltage E is directly proportional to liquid velocity, resulting in the

linear output of a magnetic flow meter.

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4- The Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Ultrasonic flowmeters use sound waves to determine the velocity of a fluid
flowing in a pipe. At no flow conditions, the frequencies of an ultrasonic
wave transmitted into a pipe and its reflections from the fluid are the same.
Under flowing conditions, the frequency of the reflected wave is different due
to the Doppler effect. When the fluid moves faster, the frequency shift increases
linearly. The transmitter processes the signal from the transmitted wave and
its reflections to determine the flow rate.

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5- Laser Doppler

Laser Doppler velocimetry, also known as laser Doppler anemometry, is the

technique of using the Doppler shift in a laser beam to measure the velocity in
transparent or semi-transparent fluid flows or the linear or vibratory motion of
opaque, reflecting surfaces. The measurement with laser Doppler anemometry is
absolute and linear with velocity and requires no pre-calibration.

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Fluid particles scatter the beam and cause shift which is proportional to fluid velocity
Advantages
-Nondestructive
-High accuracy, 0.2 %
-Measure instantaneous velocity
-Used in aircraft, boundary layer, jet propulsion, biological areas

Disadvantages
-Expensive
-Fluid should contain enough particles for scattering

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 6- Hot Wire Anenometer
A hot wire anemometer is one kind of instrument, used to measure the direction
as well as the velocity of the fluid. So, this measurement can be done by
measuring the loss of heat within the wire that is situated in the fluid stream.
These devices use a thin wire and it is heated up electrically to some stage of
temperature approximately higher than the range of ambient temperature.
Working Principle

The hot wire anemometer basic working principle is that once an electrically
heated up wire is placed within the flow of the gaseous stream, after that the
heat gets moved from thin wire to gas so that the wire temperature levels
can be reduced. Due to this reason, the resistance value of the wire can also be
changed. So this change within wire resistance permits us to measure the
liquid flow rate.
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It uses 5 μm diam. Platinum-tangsten wire.
The wire is heated by passing current to it.
Convective heat transfer coefficient is proportional to fluid velocity and its
resistance changes.
Signal conditioning: Wheatstone bridge.

Used for measuring

-Liquid and gases at high speed

-Non-conductive liquids at low speed
-Mean and fluctuating velocities
-Clean fluid

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