University of Technology

Mechanical Eng. Dept.

Mechanical & Electronic Systems
Lecture 2
Sensors & Signal Conditioning.
1 What is Sensors ?
•a sensor is an object whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its
environment, and then provide a corresponding output. A sensor is a type of
transducer; sensors may provide various types of output, but typically use electrical
or optical signals. For example, a thermocouple generates a known voltage (the
output) in response to its temperature (the environment). A mercury-in-glass
thermometer, similarly, converts measured temperature into expansion and
contraction of a liquid, which can be read on a calibrated glass tube.
• A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the
input quantity being measured changes. For instance, if the mercury in a
thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1
cm/°C (it is basically the slope Dy/Dx assuming a linear characteristic). Some sensors
can also have an impact on what they measure; for instance, a room temperature
thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats
the thermometer. Sensors need to be designed to have a small effect on what is
measured; making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other
advantages.[citation needed] Technological progress allows more and more sensors
to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as micro sensors using MEMS
technology. In most cases, a micro sensor reaches a significantly higher speed and
sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches
2 Temperature and Temperature Sensors
• What is Temperature?
• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter expressed in units of
degrees on a standard scale. You can measure temperature in many different ways that vary in equipment cost
and accuracy. The most common types of sensors are thermocouples, RTDs, and thermistors.
• Types of Temperature Sensors
• 1. Thermocouple

• Figure 1. Thermocouples are inexpensive and can operate over a wide range of temperatures.
• Thermocouples are the most commonly used temperature sensors because they are relatively inexpensive yet
accurate sensors that can operate over a wide range of temperatures. A thermocouple is created when two
dissimilar metals touch and the contact point produces a small open-circuit voltage as a function of temperature.
You can use this thermoelectric voltage, known as See beck voltage, to calculate temperature. For small changes
in temperature, the voltage is approximately linear.
• You can choose from different types of thermocouples designated by capital letters that indicate their
compositions according to American National Standards Institute (ANSI) conventions. The most common types of
thermocouples include B, E, K, N, R, S, and T.
3 • 2.Risistence Temperature Detector (RTD)

• Figure 2. RTDs are made of metal coils and can measure temperatures up to
850 °C.
• A platinum RTD is a device made of coils or films of metal (usually platinum).
When heated, the resistance of the metal increases; when cooled, the resistance
decreases. Passing current through an RTD generates a voltage across the RTD.
By measuring this voltage, you can determine its resistance and, thus, its
temperature. The relationship between resistance and temperature is relatively
linear. Typically, RTDs have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C and can measure
temperatures up to 850 °C.
4 • 3.Thermistor

• Figure 3. Passing current through a thermistor generates a voltage

proportional to temperature.
•A thermistor is a piece of semiconductor made from metal oxides that are
pressed into a small bead, disk, wafer, or other shape and sintered at high
temperatures. Lastly, they are coated with epoxy or glass. As with RTDs, you
can pass a current through a thermistor to read the voltage across the
thermistor and determine its temperature. However, unlike RTDs, thermistors
have a higher resistance (2,000 to 10,000 Ω) and a much higher sensitivity (~200
Ω/°C), allowing them to achieve higher sensitivity within a limited temperature
range (up to 300 °C).
5 Strain Gages and Load, Pressure, and Torque Sensors
• Strain Gage
• A strain gage is a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the
compression and tension forces it is experiencing. Strain measurements typically involve
very small variations in resistance, quantities on the order of milli-strain.

• Figure 1. Strain gages measure small changes in electrical resistance proportional to

compression and tension.
• To measure such small changes in resistance, strain gages are almost always used in a
bridge configuration with a voltage excitation source. The general Wheatstone bridge
consists of four resistive arms with an excitation voltage, VEX, that is applied across the
bridge. When all four resistive arms match with identical values, VO in Figure 9 will
measure 0V. VO will be nonzero and vary when any of the resistive arms are unbalanced.
Quarter-, half-, or full-bridge configurations are employed with varying levels of accuracy
and ease of setup.
6 • Figure 2. The general Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistive arms
• with an excitation voltage, VEX, that is applied across the bridge.
• Load, Pressure, and Torque Sensors

• Figure 3. The most common method for measuring load, pressure, and torque is to employ a full-bridge strain
gage-based transducer.
• The most common method for measuring load, pressure, and torque is to employ a full-bridge strain gage-based
transducer. A load cell, used to measure load and force, consists of an array of strain gages, which measure the
deformation of a structural member and converts it into an electrical signal. Pressure transducers operate under
the same principle as load cells. Strain gages, mounted on a diaphragm where pressure is applied, measure the
deformation of the diaphragm that is proportional to the pressure. Torque sensors are composed of strain gages
that are affixed to a torsion bar. As the bar turns, the gages respond to the bar's shear stress, which is proportional
to the torque.
• Load, pressure, and torque sensors can output low- or high-level voltages, depending on its excitation
requirements. Low-level sensors are typically powered by a measurement device and output mV signals. High-level
sensors (or amplified sensors) require higher external power sources to operate, and output ±5 V, ±10 V, or 4-20 mA.
7 Displacement and Position Sensors
• Types of Displacement and Position Sensors
• Proximity probes, linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), and rotary
variable differential transformers (RVDTs) are popular sensors for measuring
position. However, there are many different ways to measure position, including
encoders and string potentiometers.

• Figure 1. Eddy current proximity probes are sensors that measure relative
proximity.
8 • Eddy current proximity probes are sensors that measure relative proximity. They use changes in
voltage to measure shaft surfaces that rotate or reciprocate. Because they are no contacting
transducers, proximity probes are mounted on a reasonably stationary mechanical structure, such
as a bearing housing. From the mounting point, they measure the static and dynamic
displacement behavior of the moving machinery. Use the proximity probe measurement type
when you want to measure a dynamic position, such as an air gap between parts of moving
machinery.

• Figure 2. LVDTs operate on the principle of a transformer and consist of a stationary coil
assembly and a moveable core.
• LVDTs operate on the principle of a transformer and consist of a stationary coil assembly and a
moveable core. An LVDT measures displacement by associating a specific signal value for any
given position of the core. LVDT signal conditioners generate a sine wave for the primary output
signal and synchronously demodulate the secondary output signal. The demodulated output is
passed through a low pass filter to remove high-frequency ripple. The resulting output is a DC
voltage proportional to core displacement. The sign of the DC voltage indicates whether the
displacement is to the left or right. The main advantage of the LVDT transducer over other types
of displacement transducer is the high degree of power.
• RVDTs are the rotational version of LVDTs and generally operate over an angular range of ±30°–
70°.
9
Vibration Sensors

• Figure 1. Accelerometers are transducers for measuring the dynamic acceleration of a

physical device.
• Accelerometers are transducers for measuring the dynamic acceleration of a physical
device. The most common accelerometer measures acceleration only along a single axis.
This type is often used to measure mechanical vibration levels. The second type is the
triaxle accelerometer. This accelerometer is used to determine the type of vibration or
the direction of acceleration.
• Accelerometers designed to measure vibration are based on the piezoelectric effect. In a
piezoelectric accelerometer, a mass applies force to a crystal creating a high-impedance
charge, which results in a voltage across the crystal. Piezoelectric or charge mode
accelerometers require an external amplifier to amplify the charge and to provide an
impedance buffer. Easier to use accelerometers recommended for typical measurements
include an integrated amplifier. These sensors are referred to as integrated electronic
piezoelectric (IEPE) sensors.
10
What is Signal Conditioning?
• Most analog signals require some form of preparation before they can be
digitized. Signal conditioning is the manipulation of a signal in a way that
prepares it for the next stage of processing. Many applications involve
environmental or structural measurement, such as temperature and vibration,
from sensors. These sensors, in turn, require signal conditioning before a data
acquisition device can effectively and accurately measure the signal.

• For example, thermocouple signals have very small voltage levels that must be
amplified before they can be digitized. Other sensors, such as resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors, strain gages, and accelerometers,
require excitation to operate. All of these preparation technologies are forms of
signal conditioning.