EXPT.

NO : 1

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER DATE :

AIM: Measurement of displacement using capacitive transducer by the use of capacitance as

Displacement sensor.

APPARTUS: 1. Trainer Kit

2. Displacement sensor

THEORY:
The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based on the equation for
capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.
Capacitance C=€A/d
A=Overlapping area of plates
d=distance between two plates.
€=Permittivity of medium
The capacitive transducer work on the principle of change of capacitance may be caused by
Change in overlapping area, Change in distance between two plates and change in dielectric
constant. These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement,force and
pressure in most of the cases.The capacitive transducers which are used for measurement of
linear displacement based on change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of
plates and change in capacitance due to change in distance between two plates.

The instrument is built with an NE556 IC,which is a dual 555 timer IC‟s. The first timer is
connected as astable multivibrator while the second one is used as a monostable. At each
trigger the monostable gives a pulse whose width is determined by the resistance and the
capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor , CX connected across the measuring terminals
specifically the monostable duration is given by T=I.I x R range x C where R , is the
resistance and capacitance across the measurement terminals. From this it is seen that the
width of the monostable pulse is directly proportional to capacitance .CX .Since the
monostable duration is it self is proportional to capacitance CX . That is across the
measurement terminals, it follows that the meter indication is directly proportional to the
capacitance. The monostable output is circuit and feed to amplifier for zero setting and the
instrument to read displacement.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the connections made to the instruments.
2. Allow the instrument is ON positioned for 10 minutes for initial warm-up.
3. Pull the top plate to Zero position.
4. Adjust the Zero potentiometer so that the display reads 00.0.
5. Move the plate in step of 5 to 10 mm & note down the reading in the tabular column till
50mm.

TABULAR COLUMN:

A B C D E
S.No Actual Scale Indicator readings Error % of
reading(mm) Capacitance (mm) B-C Error

MODEL GRAPH:

Indicator Reading(mm)

Actual micrometer Reading(mm)

CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:
Viva-voce:
1.What is the principle of operation of Capacitive Transducers?

2.Based on which effect Capacitive transducers which are used for measurement of

displacement Works?

3.What is the relationship between variation of capacitance C with variation of distance

between plates?

4.What is the sensitivity of the Capacitive transducer which is using change in distance

between two plates?

5. What is the sensitivity of the Capacitive transducer which is using change area of plates?

6.What is the purpose of feeding monostable output to amplifier?

7.What is the relation between width of the monostable pulse and capacitance?

8.What is the range of displacement measured by Capacitive transducer which is using

Change in area of Plates?

9.What are the advantages of Capacitive transducers.?

10. What are the different applications of Capacitive transducers?.

 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL EXPT. NO : 2

TRANSFORMER
DATE :

AIM: To perform calibration of the LVDT & to calculate the % Error.

APPARTUS: 1.LVDT trainer

2.Screw gauge Sensor

THEORY:
Differential transformers based on variable inductance principle and also used to
measure displacement. The most popular variable inductance transducer for linear
displacement measurement is the linear variable differential transformer[LVDT] . The LVDT
illustrated in the fig . Consists of three symmetrically speed coils wound on to an isolated
bobbin A magnetic core which moves through their bobbin with out contact provides path for
magnetic flux linkage between coils. The position of the magnetic core controls the muted
between the center or primary coil and with the two outside or secondary coils. When an AC
carrier excitation is applied to the primary coil , voltage is inducted in the two secondary coils
that are wires in a series oppsing circuit . When the core is centered between the two
secondary coils. The voltage induces between the secondary coils are equal but out of phase
by 180. The voltage in the two coils cancelled and the output voltage will be zero. When the
core is moved from the center position an unbalance in mutual inductance between the
primary coil and the secondary coil occurs and an output voltage develops. The output
voltage is a linear function of the core position as long as the motion of the core is within the
operating range of the LVDT.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1.Coonnect the terminals marked “PRIMARY‟‟ on the front panel of the instrument to the
Marked “PRIMARY‟‟ on the transducer itself, with the help of the flexible wires provided
along with.Observe the colour code for the wires provided and the colour of the binding
posts.
2.Identically establish connections from terminals marked “SECONDARY‟‟. Observe the
colour code for the wires provided and the colour of the binding posts.
3.Keep pot marked “MAX” in most anticlockwise position.
4.The magnetic core may be displaced and the pointer may be brought to zero position. if the
DPM is not indicating zero, use potentiometer marked “MIN” to get a zero on DPM at zero
mechanical position.If the core is displaced in both directions ,the meter must show
indications with appropriate polarity. Now displace the core to 19mm positions in one of
the directions. Adjust the “MAX” to get an indication of 19.00 on the DPM under these
condition.
5.Now the core can be displaced by a known amount in the range of +19 and -19mm and the
meter Reading can be entered in the table given below.It may be noted that by
interchanging the secondary Terminals or primary, the polarity of the meter indication can
be reversed for a given direction of Input displacement.
6.Plot the graph of input displacement and the output indication.

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.No Actual Indicator % of

Micrometer readings Error Error
reading(mm) LVDT(mm)
MODEL GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:
1.While connecting lead wire from panel to transducer, make proper connections following
colour code. Avoid shorting of the excitation source terminals.

2.Move the core with a gentle fashion by operating the knob for core movement very
carefully. Do not Try to effect the core movement very carefully.Do not try to effect the
core movement beyond 10mm/20mm/25mm as per the given range.

CONCLUSION:.

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:
Viva-voce:
1.What is an LVDT?

2.What is the Working Principle of LVDT?

3.Explain about Residual voltage in LVDT?

4.In Which fashion two secondary coils in LVDT are connected?

5.What are the modifications to be done in LVDT to nullify residual voltage?

6.What are the different types of cored coils used for Inductive transducers?

7. What are the advantages of iron cored coils used for Inductive transducers?

8.What is the frequency range of a.c applied to primary winding of LVDT?

9.What is the output voltage of LVDT when the core is at null position?

10.What are the different applications of LVDT?

 EXPT. NO : 3

BOURDON TUBE DATE :

AIM: To measure the air pressure using Bourdon Tube pressure Transducer

APPARTUS: 1.Pressure Sensor

2.Hydraulic hand Pump with Dial gauge &pressure gauge
3.Digital display Indicator

THEORY: The Bourdon tubes are made of bending an elliptically flattened tube. One end
of the tube is sealed or closed. The other end is open for the fluid to enter. When the fluid
whose pressure is to be measured enters the tube, the tube tends to straighten out an account
of these pressure applied. This causes a movement of the free end and the displacement of
this end is amplified through mechanical linkages. The amplified displacement of the free end
may be used to move a pointer on a scale calibrated in terms of pressure or may be applied to
a electrical displacement transducer whose output may be calibrated in terms of the pressure
applied. Bourdon tube elements have several distinct advantages and these include low
cost,simple construction,high pressure range, good accuracy except
at low pressures and improved designs at the pressure for maximum safety.

The C type of Bourdon element is most commonly used for local indication but it
also used for pressure transmission and control applications. Thus relationship between the
displacement of tip and the applied pressure is non-linear i.e ,each pressure increment does
not produce a corresponding tip movement.However,a linear relationship between the
deflection of the pointer and the applied pressure is obtained using the geared sector and
pinion movement or other mechanical means.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect Foot pump carefully with the system.
2. Apply the pressure on Foot pump.
3. The applied pressure is indicated by Open type Bourdon tube Pressure gauge(P2) so that
we can see Bourdon tube movement with respect to change in applied pressure.
4. The applied pressure is also indicated by normal Pressure gauge(P1).
5.Tabulate both the Pressure gauge readings.

OBSERVATIONS:

S.NO INPUT AIR BOURDON TUBE

PRESSURE (P1) PRESSURE
INDICATED(Kg/cm2) (P2)(READING(Kg/cm2)

CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

PRECAUTIONS:
1.Connect Foot pump carefully with the system.
2.Do not tamper with the valve at input.
3.Do not apply excessive pressure than the range specified on the pressure gauge dial.
RESULT:

Viva-voce:

1.What is the relationship between displacement of tip and applied pressure?

2.What are the applications of Bourdon tube?

3.What is the relationship between displacement of tip and thickness of Bourdon tube?

4.What is the accuracy of C-type Bourdon tube?

5.What are the advantages of using Bourdon tube for measuring pressure?

6. What is the arc of C-type Bourdon tube?

7.What are the various forms of Bourdon tubes?

8.What is the initial form of C-type Bourdon tube?

9.What is the Maximum pressure can be measured by Bourdon tube?

10.How a linear relationship between the deflection of the pointer and applied pressure is

obtained?
 MEASUREMENT OF LOAD USING EXPT. NO : 4

STRAIN GAUGE DATE :

AIM: To measure the load using Strain gauge.

APPARTUS: 1.Strain Gauge setup

2.Loads

THEORY:
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on
account of fact that both length and diameter of conductor change..Also there is change is
change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property is
called piezo-resistive effect.Therfore resistance strain gauges are also known as piezoresistive
gauges..The change in the value of resistance by straining the gauge may be explained by
normal behaviour of elastic material.
If a strip of elastic material is subjected to tension its longitudinal dimension will increase
while there will be a reduction in lateral dimension. So when a gauge is subjected to a
positive strain,its length increases while its area of cross section decreases. Since the
resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area of
conductor, the resistance of gauge increases with positive strain. The extra change in the
value of resistance is attributed toa change in the value of resistivity of a conductor when
strained. This property is known as Peizo resistive effect.
Transducers that measure force,torque or pressure usually contain an elastic member that
converts the quantity to be measured to a deflection or strain. A deflection sensor or
alternatively a set of strain gauges can be used to measure the quantity of
interest(force,torque or pressure).Indirectly characteristics of transducers such as range,
linearity and sensitivity are determined by the size and shape of the elastic member,the
material used in its fabrication.
A wide variety of transducers are commercially available for measuring force,torque
and pressure. The different elastic member employed in the disjoin of the these transducers
like columns, rings, beams, cylinder tubes, washers, diaphragms, share webs.
The elastic members used in load cells are links, beams, rings and shear webs.
Strain gauges are bonded on the fabricated specimen and compression or tension load is
applied to the specimen the material gets elongated are compressed due to the material used
and its elastic module. Thus strain is transferred to the strain gauges bonded on the material
resulting in change in the resistance of the gauges. Since the strain gauges are connected in
the form of wheat stone bridge,any change in the resistance will unbalance the bridge. The
unbalance in the bridge will intern givesout the output in mV proportional to the change in
the resistance of the strain gauge.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

1. Check the connection made & switch ON the instrument by switch at the front panel. The
display glows to indicate the instrument is ON.
2.Allow the instrument is ON positioned for 10 minutes for initial warm-up.
3.Adjust the potentiometer in the front panel till the display reads.
4.Apply load on the sensor using the arrangement provided.
5.The instrument reads the load on sensor display through LED readings can be tabulated &
% error of the instrument is calculated .
6. plot the graph between actual reading & indicator reading.

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.No Actual Indicator Error = B-C % of

Load(Kg)- B Reading (Kg) - C Error

% Error=(Error/Max.Load)×100
MODEL GRAPH:

Indicator Load(Kg)

Actual Load(Kg)

CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:
RESULT:

Viva-voce:
1.Explain the working principle of strain gauge?
2.What is the another name of resistance strain gauges?
3.Explain the piezo-resistive effect?
4. what are the different types of strain gauges?
5.Define Gauge Factor?
6.What is the purpose of using gauge factor?
7.Which type of strain gauges are having highest gauge factor?
8.What are the elastic members used in load cells?
9.which type of strain gauges used to measure the load?
10.What are the two major types of applications of strain gauges?
 EXPT. NO : 5

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

DATE :

AIM: To study the temperature Vs resistance characteristics and temperature Vs voltage

characteristics of RTD (Pt100)

APPARATUS REQUIRED: 1. ITB-06CE

2. RTD sensor
3. Water Bath
4. Thermometer
5. Multimeter (optional)

THEORY:
The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This Property
is utilized for measurement of temperature using RTD. The sensor is simply a conductor
fabricated either wound coil as a film or foil grid. The change in resistance of the conductor
with temperature is given by the expression.
∆R/R0=λ1(T-T0)+ λ2(T-T0)2+………………+ λn(T-T0)n
Where T0 is a reference temperature.
R0 is the resistance at temperature T0
λ1, λ2,………… λn are temperature co-efficient of resistance.
Platinum used for sensor fabrication since it is most stable of all the metals . It can withstand
high temperatures. As a nobel metal it shows limited susceptibility to contamination. All
metals produce a positive change in resistance with temperature.
The Requirements of a conductor material to be used in RTD‟s are
i).The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should be as large as
possible.
ii).The material should have a high value of resistivity so that minimum volume of material is
used for the construction of RTD.
iii)The resistance of materials should have a continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.
FRONT PANEL DIAGRAM:
FRONT PANEL DESCRIPTION:

Power ON/OFF Switch : Used to Switch ON / OFF the unit.

T1 & T2 : Used to connect the two terminals of RTD.
SW1 : To select the resistance mode.
T3 & T4 : To measure the resistance value of RTD.
SW2 : Used to select the internal//External mode.
INT - place the switch SW2 towards downward.
EXT - place the switch SW2 towards upward.
T5 : To measure the differential amplifier output voltage.
T6 : To measure the signal conditioner output voltage.
T7 : The common GND terminal.
Display : It displays the RTD sensor output in terms of °C.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

Temperature Vs Resistance characteristics:

1. Patch the wires of RTD to the T1 and T2 terminal of the RTD input block and switch ON

the unit.

2. Place the RTD and thermometer into water bath.

3. Keep the SW1 in right direction.

4. Place the multi meter in the resistance mode across T3 and T4 terminals. The multi meter /

ohmmeter should be in the range (0-200)Ω to measure for (0-100)°C.

5. Switch ON the water bath.

6. Gradually heat the water and note the corresponding resistance simultaneously.

7. Note the temperature in thermometer and corresponding resistance value in multi meter.

8. Plot the temperature Vs resistance graph.

Temperature Vs Voltage characteristics:

1. Patch the wires of RTD to the T1 and T2 terminal of the RTD input block.

2.Switch ON the ITB-06CE Unit.

3. Keep the SW1 in left direction and switch SW2 in external mode.

4.Now adjust the „Zero‟ Potentiometer to read 00C at the display.This is done for initial setup
of the unit and this adjustment should be left undisturbed.

5. Place the multi meter in the resistance mode across T6 and T7 terminals.

6.Insert the RTD and thermometer into the water bath and note the temperature without any
heating at ambient condition.

7. Switch ON the water bath and note down the actual temperature in thermometer, output
voltage of the unit and the displayed temperature simultaneously.

8. Plot the graph for Actual temperature Vs voltage.

9.Calculate the % of error and plot the graph for Temperature Vs % Error.
 TABULAR COLUMN1:

S.NO ACTUAL TEMPERATURE(0C) DISPLAYED RESISTANCE(Ω)

(THERMOMETER) TEMPERATURE(0C)

TABULAR COLUMN2:

S.NO ACTUAL OUTPUT DISPLAYED % Error

TEMPERATURE VOLTAGE(V) TEMPERATURE(0C)
(0C)(THERMOMETER)
CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:

Viva-voce:

1.What is meant by Pt100?

2.RTD is having which type of temperature co-efficient ?

3.What are the materials used in the construction of RTD?

4.What is the relationship between resistance and temperature in RTD?

5.What are the reasons for using Platinum in the fabrication of RTD?

6.What are the requirements of Conducting material using in the Construction of RTD?

7. Explain the working principle of RTD?

8.Explain the mathematical relationship between variation of resistance with temperature?

9.Which material is having highest resistance temperature co-efficient used in Construction

of RTD?

10.What is the range of temperature measured by Platinum RTD?

 EXPT. NO : 6

SPEED MEASUREMENT DATE :

AIM: To determine the speed of rotor by speed measurement and also to estimate the error

by using Magnetic pick up and Photo electric pick up.

APPARTUS: Speed measurement setup.

THEORY:

DIGITAL RPM TRAINER-CONTACT /NON CONTACT TACHOMETER

System works at 6 V DC derived from 230V AC 50HZ.

The unit consists of

1. Sensor Magnetic pick up/Opto - Interuptor

2. Amplifier
3. Buffer
4. Crystal Oscillator
5. Mixer Gating circuit
6. Digital counter
7. Multiplexer
8. LED display

Digital output signals are generated by using Opto-Interuptor or Electrical actuation due to
induction.Signal output generated by the sensor (Magnetic pick up/Photo reflective Pickup) is
amplified by a driver and then buffered. Crystal Oscillator output is fed through a time base
generator and 1 sec pulse output is derived. Both signal output pulses from the sensor and
from the time base generator are gated by a gating circuit.Output pulses from the gating
circuit is fed to a digital counter. Pulses are counted and latched at the end of timebase. The
latched signals are multiplexed and displayed on 4 Digit seven segment LED display.
PHOTO REFLECTIVE PICK-UP:

This method is an optical method .Here, An opaque disc with perforations or transparent
windows at regular interval is mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured. A LED
source is aligned on one side of the disc in such a way that its light can pass through the
transparent windows of the disc. As the disc rotates the light will alternately passed through
the transparent windows and blocked by the opaque sections. A photo detector fixed on the
other side of the disc detects the variation of light and the output of the detector after signal
conditioning would be a square wave (as shown) whose frequency is decided by the speed
and the number of holes (transparent windows) on the disc.

MAGNETIC PICK-UP: This is a variable reluctance type speed sensor. A wheel with
projected teethes made of a ferromagnetic material is mounted on the shaft whose speed is to
be measured. The static sensor consists of a permanent magnet and a search coil mounted on
the same assembly and fixed at a closed distance from the wheel. The flux through the
permanent magnet completes the path through the teeth of the wheel and cut the search coil.
As the wheel rotates there would be change in flux cut and a voltage will be induced in the
search coil. The variation of the flux can be expressed as:
Φ(t)= Φ0+ Φm Sin ωt……………………….. (2)
where ω is the angular speed of the wheel. Then the voltage induced in the coil is:
e=−N dΦ/dt=-Nω Φm (3)
where N is the number of turns in the search coil. So both the amplitude and frequency of the
induced voltage is dependent on the speed of rotation. This voltage is fed to a comparator
circuit that gives a square wave type voltage whose amplitude is constant, but frequency is
proportional to the speed. A frequency counter is used to count the number of square pulses
during a fixed interval and displays the speed.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

Before switching ON the instrument ensure that the connections are made properly.

1. Switch ON the instrument by pushing down the toggle switch provided at the rear side
of the box. LED display glows to indicate that the instrument is ON .
2. Allow the instrument for 10 minutes is ON position for initial warm up.
3. Select the sensor with the help of the toggle switch .
4. Switch ON the electronic regulator. The fan rotates which will rotate the tone wheels
.The display will start indicating exact RPM of the motor.
5. Readings can be tabulated for both the sensors . Comparison can be made between the
two sensors.

TABULAR COLUMN:

A B C D

S. No Actual speed of motor Magnetic Pick-up Error

Photo Electric Pick-up (RPM) B-C

(RPM)

1
.

2
.

3
.
CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:

Viva-Voce:

1.What are the units of Speed?

2.What is the popular sensor for measuring Speed?

3.What are the two methods for noncontact type Speed measurement?

4.In noncontact type speed measurement Speed signal is converted into which signal.?

5.What is the light source in Optical Speed sensing arrangement?

6. What is the detector used in Optical Speed sensing arrangement?

7.What is the mathematical expression between Voltage induced and speed in Variable

reluctance type Speed sensing arrangement?

8.What is the purpose of frequency counter in Variable reluctance type Speed sensing

arrangement?

9.What is the relation between number of turns in a coil and voltage induced in Variable

reluctance type Speed sensing arrangement?

10.What is the relation between speed and frequency in Optical Speed sensing arrangement?
 MEASUREMENT OF R,L,C&Q USING EXPT. NO : 7

Q-METER DATE :

AIM:. To measure the value of R,L,C and Q using the Q – meter

APPARTUS: Q- meter, Resistors, Decade capacitance box , coils.

THEORY:
The Q- meter is an instrument designed to measure some of the electrical
properties of coils and capacitors of this useful laboratory instrument is based on the
familiar characteristics of a series resonant circuit , namely the voltage across the coil or the
capacitor is equal to the applied voltage times of the circuit. If a fixed voltage is applied to
the circuit, 2 voltmeter across the capacitor can be calibrated to read or display.
A practical Q meter circuit is shown in Fig;1. The wide range oscillator with a frequency
range from 50kHz to 50MHz delivers current to a low value shunt resistance Rst. The value
of shunt is very low, typically on the order of 0.02Ω. It introduces element no resistance into
the oscillatory circuit and it therefore represents a voltage source of magnitude E with a very
small internal resistance . The voltage E across shunt is measured with thermocouple meter
marked” Multiply or by”.
To make the measurement the unknown coil is connected to the test terminals of the
instrument and the circuit is tuned to resonance either by setting the oscillator to a given
frequency and varying internal resonating capacitor or by presetting the capacitor to a
desired value and adjusting the frequency of the oscillator. The Q reading on output meter
must be multiplied by the index setting of Multiply or by meter to obtain actual Q-value.
The inductance of the coil can be calculated from known value frequency and resonating
capacitance.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1.Measurement of resistors using Q-meter:
Fix a resistor to +ve and –ve terminals of Q-meter. If R≥10kΩ,then adjust to
100 Hz
frequency and parallel equivalent circuit and observe the value of resistance.
2. Measurement of inductors using Q-meter:
If L ≥1H adjust to 100Hz frequency and series equivalent circuit. Note down
the value of
inductance.
3. Measurement of capacitors using Q-meter:
If C < 1µF then adjust to 1KHz frequency and parallel equivalent circuit. Note
the value
of capacitance.
4. Measurement of parameters of Coils:
Keeping the –ve terminal common and varying position of +ve terminal note
inductance
L, frequency f and resistor R and C.
Theoretical value of Q = XL/R
TABULAR COLUMNS:

MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE:

Actual Measure Q- Err %

S.N Value( d fact or Err
O H) Value(H or or
)

Error =Actual value - Measured value

%Error = (Error/Actual value) ×100

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE:

Actual Measured Error %

S.NO Value(H) Value(H) Error
MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE:

Actual Measured Error % Error

S.NO Value(nF) Value(nF)

CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:

Viva-voce:
1.What is the purpose of Q-Meter?

2.What is the range of frequencies delivered by wide range oscillator in Q-Meter?

3.Explain the Principle of working of Q-meter?

4.What are the different applications of Q-meter?

5.Q-Meter based on which circuit characteristics?

6.Explain the measurement of resistors using Q-meter?

7. Explain the measurement of inductors using Q-meter?

8. Explain the measurement of capacitors using Q-meter?

9. Explain the measurement of parameters of coil using Q-meter?

10.What is the value of shunt resistance used in the Q-meter?

 STUDY OF AC VOLTMETER EXPT. NO : 8

(USING D’ARSONAVAL MOVEMENT) DATE :

AIM: To extend the range of AC voltmeter using D‟Arsonaval movement

APPARATUS: 1.Trainer kit

2. connecting wires
3. Multimeter

THEORY:
The D‟Arsonaval movement responds to average of DC value of the current
through the moving coil.If the movement carries A.C current with positive and negative half
cycles the driving torque would be in one direction for the positive alteration and in other
direction for negative alteration. If the frequency of A.C is very low,the pointer will swing
back and forth around zero point on the meter scale.At higher frequencies ,the inertia of the
coil is so great that the pointer cannot follow the rapid reversals the driving torque and
hovers around the zero mark,vibrating slightly.
To measure ac on D‟Arsonaval movement,some means must be devised to obtain
a unidirectional Torque that does not reverse each half cycle..One method involves
rectification of the ac, so that the rectified current deflects the coil.Other methods use the
heating due to the alternating current to produce an indication of its magnitude.
Rectifier-type instruments generally use a PMMC movement in combination with
some rectifier arrangement. The rectifier element usually consists of germanium or silicon
diode.The bridge rectifier produces a pulsating unidirectional current through the meter
movement over the complete cycle of the input voltage. Because of inertia of the moving
coil, the meter will indicate a steady deflection proportional to the average value of current.
Since alternating voltages are usually in rms values, the meter scale is calibrated in terms of
the rms value of the sinusoidal waveform.
General rectifier type AC voltmeter often use the arrangement two diodes are used in this
circuit forming full wave rectifier with the movement so connected that it receives only half
of the rectified input waveforms and causes the meter to deflect according to the average
value of this half cycle. The meter movement is shunted by a resistance Rsh , inorder to draw
more current through the diode D1 and move current through the diode D2, the negative
cycle of the input voltage would apply a reverse voltage would across diode D1 causing a
small leakage current in the reverse direction.
The average value of the complete cycle would therefore be lower than it should be for half
cycle wave rectification. Diode D2 deals with this problem on the negative half cycle D2
conducts heavily, and the current through the measuring circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1) Make power on the unit.

2) Connect the meter in circuit. Connect AC input to AC meter circuit.
3) Connect standard AC voltmeter across input.
4) Select 5V range by connecting point X to pole.
5) Vary the AC input voltage in proper step stand, note the meter readings.
TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO STANDARD A.C VOLTMETER EXPERIMENTAL METER

READING READING

MODEL GRAPH:

Experimental reading(V)

Actual reading(V)

CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:
Viva-voce:

1.The D‟Arsonaval movement responds to which type of current?

2.What rectifier element consists usually in Rectifier-type instruments?

3.The Bridge rectifier produces which type of current in A.C indicating instruments?

4.To measure ac on the D‟Arsonaval movement what must be devised to obtain a

unidirectional torque?

5. Why the meter movement is shunted by the resistance R sh?

6.Diode D1 conducts during which half cycle of the input waveform?

7.The meter steady deflection is proportional to which value of current?

8.The meter scale in A.C indicating instruments is calibrated in terms of which value?

9.How the pointer will move on the meter scale if the ac frequency is very low?

10. At higher frequencies why the pointer is vibrating slightly in A.C indicating instruments?
 STUDY OF DC METERS EXPT. NO : 9
(USING D’ARSONAVAL MOVEMENT)
A)DC VOLTMETER DATE :
B)DC AMMETER

AIM: To extend the range of DC meter using D‟Arsonaval movement

APPARTUS: 1.Trainer kit

2. Multi meter

DC VOLTMETER

THEORY:

MULTIPLIER RESISTOR:
The addition of a series resistor or multiplier converts the basic
D‟Arsonaval movement in to a dc voltmeter as shown in figure. The multiplier limits the
current through the movement so as not to exceed the value of the full scale deflection current
(Ifsd). A dc voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit and
is therefore connected across a source of emf or a circuit component the meter terminals are
generally marked “pos” and “neg” since polarity must be observed.
The values of a multiplier, required to external the voltage range is calculated from, where
Im – deflection resistance of the movement
Rm – internal resistance of the movement
Rs – multiplier resistance
V – full range voltage of the instrument
V = Im(Rs+Rm)
Solving for Rs gives
Rs = (V-ImRm)/Im
= (V/Im) – Rm
The multiplier is usually mounted inside the case voltmeter for moderate ranges up to 500V.
For higher voltages the multiplier may be mounted separately outside the case on a pair of
binding posts to avoid excessive current heating inside the case.
MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER:
The addition of a number of multipliers, together with a range switch, provides the
instruments with a workable number of voltage ranges. Figure shows a multirange voltmeter
using a four position switch and for multipliers R1, R2, R3 & R4 for the voltage ranges V1,
V2, V3 & V4 respectively.

VOLTMETER SENSITIVITY:
OHM‟S PER VOLT RATING:
It was shown that the full scale deflection current Ifsd was reached on all voltage ranges
when the corresponding full scale voltage was applied. For example, a current of 1mA is
obtained for voltages of 10V, 50V, 250V, 500V across the meter terminals for each voltage
range, the quotient of the total circuit resistance Rt and the voltage V is always 1000 ohm/V,
this figure is often referred to as the sensitivity
S = 1/Ifsd = ohm/V
The sensitivity S of the voltmeter may be used to advantage in the sensitivity method of
calculating the resistance of the multiplier in a DC voltmeter.
LOADING EFFECT:
The sensitivity of a DC voltmeter is an important factor when selecting a meter for a certain
voltage measurement. A low sensitivity meter may give correct readings when measuring
voltages in low resistance circuits but it is certain to produce very un reliable readings in high
resistance circuits.

MUTLI RANGE VOLTMETER:

Measure meter resistance Rm = ………………….Ohms
Full scale deflection current Ifsd = ………………………Ma
If required full scale deflection current can be measured as shown in circuit diagram. Make
connections as shown in circuit diagram. Vary the supply from a volt, slowly till
experimental meter gives full scale deflection.Note the reading of standard multimeter which
is full scale deflection current of experiment meter.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

1) Connect the meter for 1V range

2) Connect variable power supply at the input of meter also connect standard voltmeter
across power supply
3) Keep power supply at 0V by keeping both fine & coarse voltage knob fully
anticlockwise.
4) Vary the knob slowly and note the standard voltmeter& Experimental voltmeter
reading.

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO Standard Volt meter reading Experimental meter panel

reading

MODEL GRAPH:

Experimental reading(V)

Standard reading(µA)

CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:
DC AMMETER
THEORY:
The basic movement of a DC ammeter is a PMMC galvanometer since the coil
winding of a basic movement is small and light, it can carry only very small currents. When
large currents are to be measured it is necessary to by pass the major part of current through a
resistance called a shunt calculated by applying conventional circuit analysis
Rm = Internal resistance of the movement (coil)
R1 = resistance of the shunt
I = full scale deflection current of the ammeter including shunt
Is = shunt current
Im = full scale deflection current of the movement
Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement the voltage drop across the
shunt & movement must be some and hence we write
Vshunt = Vmovement
Or
IsRs = ImRm
Therefore Rs = (Im×Rm)/Is
Since Is = I-Im
Rs = (Im×Rm)/(I-Im)
For each required value of full scale meter current we can calculate the value of shunt
resistance required.

AYRTON SHUNT:
The current range of the dc ammeter may be further extended by a
number of shunts selected by a range switch-such a meter is called multi-range ammeter
.figure shows the schematic diagram of multi range ammeter.

Measure meter resistance Rm = ---------- Ohm.

Full scale deflection current 1fsd = ---------- u A.
Calculation of shunt resistance ;
a) 1m A range ;
R SH = 1fsd×Rm/(1mA-1fsd)=111.11 ohm
similarly for b) 5m A range , R SH= 20.40 ohm
c) 10mA range , R SH= 10.10 ohm
d) 25mA range , R SH= 4.16 ohm
e) 50 mA range , R SH= 2.00 ohm
For Ayrton shunt , resistance of shunt also comes in series with the meter as the range switch
changes. Hence using circuit analysis theory values are calculated , and are given as under.
a) 1m A range , R SH= ………. ohm
b) 5m A range , R SH= ……….ohm
c) 10mA range , R SH= ……………… ohm
d) 25mA range , R SH= ………………. ohm
e) 50 mA range , R SH= ………..ohm

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1.a)Connect pole point X to 1 m A range socket.
b)Connect standard millimeter in series with circuit at point A and B.
c)Connect experimental meter across shunt resistance chain as shown in diagram.
d)Keep volt adjust knob fully anticlockwise , and series limiting resistance knob fully
clockwise.
e)Make power on the unit.
f)Increase the voltage supply slightly and note standard meter reading and experimental
meter reading .Increase the supply voltage in proper steps and take the readings till full
scale meter current.

g) Plot the calibration graph of standard meter reading against experimental meter reading .
Repeat the procedure for 5 m A ,10m A ,25m A and 50m A range.
2) MEASUREMENT OF UNKNOWN CURRENT ;-
a)Take out standard milli ammeter, and short points A and B.
b)With the same experimental set up adjust current limiting resistance and note the meter
reading.
c)Using calibration graph and meter reading note the value of circuit current from the
graph.
TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO Standard meter reading Experimental meter

reading

MODEL GRAPH:

Experimental reading( mA)

Standard reading(µA)
CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:

Viva-voce:

1.PMMC movement is also called as which movement?

2.Two phosphor bronze conductive springs provide which type of force in D‟Arsonaval
movement?

3.How basic D‟Arsonaval movement is converted into dc voltmeter?

4.What is the value of multiplier required to extend the voltage range?

5.What will be indicated by pointer attached to the coil in PMMC movement?

6.Give the expression for voltmeter Sensitivity in DC voltmeter?

7.What is the basic movement of DC ammeter?

8.How the current range of dc ammeter can be extended?

9.What is the mathematical expression for shunt resistance in multirange ammeter?

10.Loading effect is caused by which instruments in DC voltmeter?

 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE EXPT. NO : 10

DATE :

AIM: To measure the value of unknown resistance using wheat stone bridge.

APPARTUS: 1.Trainer Board

2. Decade resistance box
3.Multimeter
4.Power Supply
5.Connecting wires.

THEORY:
A very important device used in the measurement of medium resistances is the
Wheatstone bridge . It is still an accurate and reliable instrument and is extensively used in
industry. The Wheatstone bridge is an instrument for making comparison measurements and
operates upon a null indication principle. This means the indication is independent of the
calibration of the null indicating instrument . For this reason ,very high degrees of accuracy
can be achieved using Wheatstone bridge. Accuracy of 0.1% is quite common with a
Wheatstone bridge.Figure .3 shows the basic circuit of a Wheatstone bridge . It has four
resistive arms, consisting of resistances P,Q,R and S together with a source of emf and a null
detector, usually a galvanometer G or other sensitive current meter. The current through the
galvanometer depends on the potential difference between points c and d. The bridge is said
to be balanced when there is no current through the galvanometer or when the potential
difference across the galvanometer is zero. This occurs when the voltage from point‟ b‟ to
point „a‟ equals the voltage from point „d‟ to point „b‟ or ,by referring to the other battery
terminal ,when the voltage from point „d‟ to point „c‟ equals the voltage from point „b‟ to
point „ c‟ .
For bridge balance ,we can write,
I1R1=I2 R2 .............................(1)

For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions also exit;
I1= I3 = E / (R1+R4)..............................(2)
I2= I4 = E / (R2+R3)...........................(3)

Where E = emf of the battery.

Combining Egns . 1,2 and 3 and simplifying, we obtain;
R1/( R1+R4) = R2/( R2+R3)................................(4)
From which QR =PS.................................................(5)
Equation 5 is the well known expression for the balance of Wheatstone bridge . If three of
the resistances are known ,the fourth may be determined from Egn 5 and we obtain:
R=S(P/Q)
Where R is the unknown resistance, S is called the standard arm of the bridge and P and Q
are called the ratio arms.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit shown in fig.
2.Apply the supply voltage until get bridge unbalance condition.
3.Vary the DRB‟s until to read Zero in ammeter /galvanometer.
4.Find the unknown value of Rx=R2*R3/R4 .

TABULAR COLUMN:

.S. P Q S(Ohms) S=S1+S2=S3

NO (Ohms) (Ohms) S1 S2 S3

CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:

Viva-voce:

1.What range of resistance measured by using wheat stone bridge?

2.When the bridge is said to be balanced?
3.The current through the galvanometer in wheat stone bridge depends on potential
difference between which points?
4.What are the ratio arms of wheat stone bridge?
5.What is the mathematical expression for unknown resistance value in wheat stone bridge?
6.Based on which principle wheat stone bridge works?
7. What are the standard arms of wheat stone bridge?
8.What is the accuracy of wheat stone bridge when measuring medium resistance?
9. What is the mathematical expression for sensitivity of wheat stone bridge?
10.How the current through the galvanometer can be found in wheat stone bridge?
 STUDY OF A.C BRIDGES EXPT. NO : 11
A)HAY’S BRIDGE
B)MAXWELL’S BRIDGE DATE :

AIM: To measure the unknown inductance and capacitance in terms of known inductance
and capacitance using A.C bridges.

a) Hay‟s bridge b) Maxwell‟s bridge

APPARATUS:
1)Trainer kit
2) Connecting wires
3)Resistors
4)Multimeter

HAY’S BRIDGE

THEORY:

The hay‟s bridge differs from the maxwell‟s bridge by having resistors R1 in series
with standard capacitance C1 instead of in parallel, it is immediately apparent that for large
phase angles, R1 should have a very low value. The hay circuit it is therefore more
convenient for measuring high Q-coils
The balance equations are again divided by substituting the values of the impedances of the
bridge
Z1 = R1-( j/wC1); Z2 = R2; Z3 = R3+jwL3 ; Z4 = R4
(R1-j/wC1)(R3+jwL3) = R2R4 …………………………1
R1R3+L3/C1 – jR3/wC1 + jwL3R1 = R2R4
Seperating real and imaginary terms we obtain
R1R3+(L3/C1)= R2R4 …………………………………….2
and
R3/wC1 = wL3R1………………………………………3
Both equation(2) & eqn (3) contain L3 and R3,we must solve these equations simultaneously.
This yields
R3 = (w2C12R1R2R4)/(I+w2C12R12)
L3 = R2R4C1/(1+w2C12R12)…………………5
 These expressions for the unknown inductance and resistance both contain the
angular velocity w and it therefore appears that the frequency of the voltage source must be
known accurately.
The tangent of inductive phase angle is
TanθL = XL/R = wL3/R3=Q………….6
The tangent of capacitive phase angle is
Tanθc = Xc/R = 1/(wC1R1) …………………7
When the two phase angles are equal,their tangents are also equal and we can write
TanθL = Tanθc = Q= 1/(wC1R1)……………8
The term (1+w2C12R12) which appears in Eqns 4 and 5 we find that,after substituting in Eqn.8
in the expressions for L3,Eqn 5 reduces to
L3 = R2R4C1/(1+(1/Q)2)
For a value of Q greater than 10,the term (1/Q) 2 will be smaller than 100 and can be
neglected.
Therefore Eqn 5 reduces to the expression
L3 = R2R4C1
The hay‟s bridge is suited for the measurement of high-Q inductors, especially those having
a Q greater than 10.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

1) Make power on to the unit.

2) Connect audio detector at points B & D.
3) Connect R21 or R22 at point C.
4) Connect inductance under measurement to point C.
5) Adjust resistances R1 & R4 alternatively to get null balance.
6) Make power off
7) Note the values of R1 & R4 for balance condition.
8) Calculate the value of unknown inductance using formula L3 = R2R1C1
& Q = 1/(wR1C1)= 1/(2πf)R1C1
9) Repeat by making C12Parallel to C11.

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO R1(Ω) R4(Ω) C1 C3 Q

S.NO R1(Ω) R4(Ω) C1 C2 Q2

S.NO R1(Ω) R4(Ω) C1 L1 Q1

CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:
MAXWELL’S BRIDGE
THEORY:

Maxwell‟s bridge is used to measure an unknown inductance in terms of a known

capacitance
Consider the bridge two arms of the bridge are pure resistances and hence the phase balance
depends on the remaining two arms of the bridge
Z3 is placed in one arm this will develop positive phase angle.
θ 3 + θ 1 = 00
At balance condition Z1Z3 = Z2Z4
Z2 = R2; Z4 = R4
Z1 = R1/(1+jwC1R1)
Solving for the balance condition & separating real & imaginary parts. We get
L3 = C1R2R4
R3 = R2(R4/R1)
Q = wC1R1
The Maxwell‟s bridge is limited to the measurement of medium Q coils(1<Q<10)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

1) Make power on to the circuit

2) Connect R21 or R22 as required at point C
3) Connect L1,L2 or L3 at point C
4) Connect point B and D to the audio detector at Vin
5) Adjust R4 and R1 to get maximum sound for null conditions or minimum sound as
possible. Measure R1 and R4

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO R1(Ω) R4(Ω) RL3(Ω) L3(mH) Q3

S.NO R1(Ω) R4(Ω) RL1(Ω) L2(mH) Q2

S.NO R1(Ω) R4(Ω) RL1(Ω) L1(mH) Q1

CONCLUSION:

JUSTIFICATION:

RESULT:
Viva-voce:

1.What is the purpose of using A.C Bridges?

2.What are the two balancing conditions which must be satisfied in a four arm AC impedance

bridge?

3. What is the use of Maxwell‟s bridge ?

4.Write the balance condition in Maxwell‟s bridge?

5.What is the mathematical expression for unknown inductance in Maxwell‟s bridge?

6.For what range of Q of coil Maxwell‟s bridge will be used?

7.What is the difference between Maxwell‟s bridge and hay‟s bridge?

8. For what range of Q of coil Hay‟s bridge will be used?

9. What is the mathematical expression for unknown inductance in Hay‟s bridge?

10. What is the use of Hay‟s bridge ?