Experiment-1

STUDY OF SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

AIM:

To study synchro transmitter and receiver

1. To find electrical zero of synchro transmitter
2. To plot the transmitter-receiver characteristics of the synchro in
a. Direct mode
b. Differential mode

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

Synchro Transmitter and receiver, volt meter and connecting wires

THEORY

Synchro devices work on the principle of a rotating transformer (induction motor)

SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER
When the rotor is excited by ac voltage , the rotor current flows ,and a magnetic field is
produced. The rotor magnetic field induces an emf in the stator coil by transformer action. The
effective voltage induced in any stator coil depends on the angular position of the coil’s axis with
respect to rotor axis.
Let the rotor rotates in anti clockwise direction by an angle ‘θ’ emfs are induced in stator
coils.
Induced emf in stator coils = Kt Kc Er Sinωt
Coupling co efficient, Kc for coil S2 = K1 Cos θ
Kc for coil S3 = K1 Cos (θ-120)
Kc for coil S1 = K1 Cos (θ-240)
Emf, Es2 = Kt K1 Cos θ Er Sinωt
=K Er Cos θ Sinωt …………………………(a)
Es3 = K Er Cos (θ-120) Sinωt ………………………….(b)
Es1 = K Er Cos (θ-240) Sinωt where K = Kt K1 ………………………….(c)
Coil to coil emf can be expressed as
Es1s2 = Es1 - Es2 = √3 K Er Sin (θ+240) Sinωt ………………(1)
Es2s3 = Es2 - Es3 = √3 K Er Sin (θ+120) Sinωt ………………(2)
Es3s1 = Es3 - Es1 = √3 K Er Sinθ Sinωt ………………(3)
From (a) when θ = 0 , maximum emf is induced in coil S2 .
From (3) coil to coil voltage Es3s1 is zero. this position of the rotor is defined as the electrical
zero of the transmitter. The electrical zero position is used as reference for specifying the angular
position of the rotor.
SYNCHRO RECEIVER
The generated emf of the synchrotransmitter is applied as input to the stator coils of
control transformer. The rotor shaft is connected to the load whose position has to be maintained
at the desired value. Depending on the current position of the rotor and the applied emf on the
stator ,an emf is induced on the rotor winding. This emf can be measured and used to drive a
motor so that the position of the load is corrected.

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the synchro transmitter and receiver for zero setting.

2. Find the electrical zero by verifying the condition V2 = 0, V1 = maximum value. Note
the error in degrees.
3. Set up the circuit for synchro transmitter characteristics.
4. Note down the angular position and corresponding voltmeter reading.
5. Set up the circuit for synchro transmitter and receiver and note down the angular
reading on the transmitter and receiver sides.

RESULT

Studied synchro transmitter and receiver

1. Found electrical zero of synchro transmitter
2. Plotted the transmitter-receiver characteristics of the synchro in
c. Direct mode
d. Differential mode
 Experiment-2

DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT USING LVDT

AIM
To calibrate the given LVDT trainer module and to measure displacement using it and to plot
the graph, i.e., indicated reading vs actual reading and also plot the error curve.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
LVDT, 31/2 digital display, zero and CAL potentiometer, micrometer.
THEORY

MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT
Differential transformer based on a variable inductance principle are also used to measure
displacement. The most popular variable inductance transducer for linear displacement
measurement is the Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT). The LVDT illustrated in the
figure consists of these symmetrically spaced coils wound into an insulated bobbin. A magnetic
core , which moves through these bobbin without contact , provides a path for magnetic flux
linkage between coils. The position of the magnetic core controls the mutual working between
the centre or primary coil and with the two outside or secondary coils.
When an ac carrier excitation is applied to the primary coil, voltages are induced in the
two secondary coils that are wires in a series opposing circuits. When the core is centered
between the two secondary coils , the voltage induces between the secondary coils are equal but
out of phase by . The voltage in the two coils cancels and the output voltage will be zero.
When the core moves from the centre position , an imbalance in mutual inductance between the
primary coil and the secondary coil occurs and an output voltage develops. The output voltage is
a linear function of the core position as long as the motion of the core is within the operating
range of the LVDT.
CIRCUIT EXPLANATION
The circuit can be divided into three parts
1. Power supply
2. Display
3. Frequency generator and signal conditioner

POWER SUPPLY
The power supply units provides power for all the electronic device in the instrument.
These are two different regulated power supply in the unit
a) +5V , -5V, 250mA to drive digital integrated circuits.
b) +5V ,-0 -5V, 250mA to drive digital integrated circuits.
DISPLAY
The display circuit is basically a 31/2 digital voltmeter which accepts dc of 200mV for full
scale reading . The display will be indicated through seven segment bright LED’s.
FREQUENCY GENERATOR
The circuit is an IC based (OPAMP) used to generate excitation voltage to the LVDT
primary coil. The IC’s are +5V and -5V and produce a fine square wave of desired frequency .
The voltage can be adjusted using a trim pot. The square wave is then trimmed by FET , PNP
and NPN transistor. Then the frequency is adjusted by varying the trim pot. The voltage and the
frequency is adjusted to 2KHZ , 2v which is fed to LVDT as an excitation voltage.
SIGNAL CONDITIONER
The circuit which processes the output of transducers and presents a fixed dc voltage to
the display constitute the demodulator and amplifier. Demodulator is a phase sensitive detector
and ac amplifier which gives out dc voltage which is amplified and fed to summing amplifiers.
The output of the summing amplifier is fed to the display.
SPECIFICATION
INDICATOR
Display : 31/2 digit seven segment red LED display of range 200mV for full scale deflection to
read +/- 1999 counts.
Excitation voltage : 1000Hz at 1V

Operating temperature : + C to C
Zero adjustment : Front panel through potentiometer
Sensitivity : 0.1 mm
System Inaccuracy :1%
Repeatability : 1%
Connection : Through 6 core shielded cable with Din connector
Fuse : 250mA fast glow type
Power : 230V +/- 10% , 50Hz
SENSOR
Range : +/- 10mm
Excitation voltage : 1 to 4 KHz at 1 to 4V
Linearity : 1%

Operating temperature : + C to C
Connection : Through 6 core shielded cable provided along with the sensor of 2m length
Calibration JIG : Micrometer of 0 to 25mm length is mounted as the same.
PANNEL DETAILS
Display : 31/2 digit LED display of 200mV FSD to read up to +/- 1999 counts
Zero : Single turn potentiometer to adjust 000 when the sensor is connected
CAL : Single turn potentiometer to adjust the calibration point
Circuitry : Block diagram of the circuit for displacement indicator . The diagram also shows
LVDT block diagram also.
MOUNTING OF LVDT ON THE CALIBRATION JIG
LVDT has to be mounted perfectly on the calibration jig . Micrometer should be
moved till the micrometer reads 20mm . LVDT should be mounted to the center plate by the two
nuts provided . The core of the LVDT should be aligned with the core of the micrometer. Adjust
the core of the LVDT till it touches the micrometer core and tighter the nut.
CONNECTION DETAILS
Connecting instrument to mains
3 pin power chord is provided , attached to the instrument. Connect the 3 pin plug to
the 230V , 50 Hz socket. Before connecting ensure that the power on switch is in OFF position.
Sensor connection
6 core shielded cable is connected to the LVDT with male connectors of different
colors are fixed to each wire . Connect the made pins to the socket matching the color correctly.
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the power supply chord at the rear panel to the 230V 50Hz supply. Switch on
the instrument by pressing down the toggle switch. The display glows to indicate the
instrument is ON.
2. Allow the instrument in ON position for 10 minutes for initial warm up.
3. Rotate the micrometer till it reads 20.0
4. Adjust the CAL potentiometer at the front panel so that the display reads 10.0
5. Rotate the core of the micrometer till it reads 10.0 and adjust the ZERO potentiometer
till the display reads 00.0.
6. Rotate back the potentiometer core upto 20.0 and adjust once again CAL potentiometer
till the display reads 10.0 . Now the instrument is calibrated for +/- 10.0mm range .
As the core of LVDT moves the display reads the displacement in mm
7. Rotate the core of the micrometer in steps of 1 or 2mm and tabulate the readings .The
micrometer will show the exact displacement given to the LVDT. Tabulate the
readings and plot the graph actual Vs indicated reading and also plot the error curve .

TABULAR COLUMN

Sl No. Actual reading(mm) Indicated % error

reading(mm)
CALCULATION

%Error = X 100.

RESULT

Calibrated the given LVDT trainer module and to measure displacement using it and plotted the
graph, i.e., indicated reading vs actual reading and also plot the error curve
 Experiment-3

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING THERMOCOUPLE

AIM
To calibrate the given thermocouple trainer module.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Thermocouple, 31/2 digit LCD, Initial and final set potentiometer, water kettle, Display,
mercury thermometer.

THEORY

THERMOCOUPLE
When two dissimilar materials are brought in contact a potential develops as a result of
an effect called seebeck effect. A thermocouple is a very simple temperature sensor operates
based on the seebeck effect , which results in the generation of a thermo electric potential, when
two dissimilar metals are joined to a junction. The electric potential of the materials accepting
electrons becomes –ve at the interface while potential of the materials providing the electrons
becomes positive. Thus an electric field is established by the flow of electrons across the
interface when this electric field becomes sufficient to balance the diffusion forces , a state of
equilibrium with respect to electron migration is established. Since the magnitude of diffusion
forces is controlled by the temperature of the thermocouple junction, the electric potential of at
the junction provides a measure of the temperature. The electric potential is usually measured by
introducing a special junction in an electric circuit. The voltage across terminals M-N can be
represented approximately by an empirical equation having the form E0= C1(T1-T2)
+ C2(T12- T22)
Where C1 and C2 are the thermoelectric constants that depend on the material used to form the
equations , T1 and T2 are junction temperatures
CIRCUIT EXPLANATIONS
The circuit comprises of three parts
1. Power supply
2. Signal conditioning and amplifying
3. Analog to digital convertor
1. POWER SUPPLY
In built power supply use power to all electronic devices inside the circuitry.
High stable regulated power supply is used for better performance. +5-0-5V,
500mA for analog and digital circuits and also for sensor applications.
2. SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND AMPLIFYING
The circuitry comprises of signal conditioner and amplifier. The output of the
sensor is amplified to a required level. The thermocouple gives out directly which
is amplified. Thermistors and RTD are connected to ground through a resistor,
 and the voltage is applied to the other end of the sensor. The resistance change in
the sensor will give the mV output which is amplified and controlled. Analog
output is fed to the ADC.
3. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTOR
The output from the amplifier is linearised analog dc voltage. This analog output
is converted into digital output with the help of IC7107 3.5 digit 200mA to digital
convertor. Then it is displayed through seven segment LED’s.

SPECIFICATIONS
Sensor : J type thermocouple
Display : 31/2 digit LED display 200mV FSD to read up to +/- 1999 count
Initial and final set : Through single turn potentiometer set
Temperature : 1000C
Temperature source : water kettle
Temperature master : glass bead thermometer
PANEL DISPLAYS
Display : 31/2 digit LED display of 20mV FSD
Initial set : single turn potentiometer to set initial temperature (room temperature)
Final set : single turn potentiometer to calibrate the instrument(maximum temperature)
Power on : rocker switch to control power supply to the instrument
CONNECTION DETAILS
Connecting instrument to mains
3 pin power chord is provided , attached to the instrument. Connect the 3 pin plug to
the 230V , 50 Hz socket. Before connecting ensure that the power on switch is in OFF position.
Connect the kettle to 230V supply with the cable supplied.
Sensor connection : Connect the thermocouple to the connector on the rear panel.

PROCEDURE

1. Check connection made and switch ON the instrument by rocker switch at the front
panel. The display glows to indicate the instrument is ON.
2. Allow the instrument in ON position for 10 minutes for initial warm up.
3. Pore around 3/4th full of water to the kettle and place sensors and thermometer inside the
kettle.
4. Note down the initial temperature from the thermometer.
5. Adjust the initial set potentiometer in the front panel till the display reads initial water
temperature
6. Switch on the kettle and wait till water boils. Note down the reading in the thermometer
and set final set potentiometer till the display reads boiling temperature.
7. Remove the sensor from the boiling water; immerse it in the cold water. Set the cold
water temperature using initial set potentiometer.
8. Repeat the process till the display reads exact boiling water and cold water temperature.
Change the water in the kettle and reheat the water. Now the display starts showing exact
temperature raises in the kettle.
 9. Note down the readings for every 100 rise in temperature and tabulate the readings in the
tabular column for indicator reading and actual reading.

TABULAR COLUMN

SL NO. Actual reading(0C) Indicated reading(0C) % error

CALCULATION

%Error = X 100.

RESULT

Calibrated the given thermocouple trainer module.

 Experiment-4

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING RTD

AIM
To calibrate the given RTD trainer module for the measurement of temperature from
room temperature to boiling point of water.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
RTD sensor, 31/2 digit LED display, initial and final set potentiometer, water kettle,
mercury thermometer

THEORY
Resistance thermometers are simple to use, require no special wiring, are highly stable
and very sensitive. RTD’s commonly use platinum, Ni and Cu to form the sensor although iron,
tungsten and alloys can be used. The former metals have the advantage that they can be obtain
to high degree of chemical purity.
Copper sensors are an obvious candidate as Cu is readily available at high purity and is
quite linear. High temperature measurements are limited to about1000C. owing to the long
resistivity of Cu , long and hence bulky lengths of fine wire are required and the resultant
relatively low resistance obtained makes accurate measurement difficult. Cu is also susceptible
to corrosion and oxidation. It is used sometimes in car radiator temperature measurement and for
averaging measurements in large oil tanks.
Ni sensors are appreciably non linear, restraining measurements to less than 3000C, all the
passing networks can be added to give linear o/ps with temperature however temperature cycling
through the curie point at 3580C causes resistance instability. The resistivity is higher allow in
smaller devices to be constructed. As there is little international agreement its wider use is
limited. Oxidation and corrosion is a problem.
Platinum sensors eliminate resistance thermometry. Platinum is stable, resist corrosion
and oxidation, is malleable, has a high melting made to a high degree of purity. All this is
achieved at the expense of high manufacturing costs and careful mounting to avoid strain guage
effects. Measurements can be made from – 2200C to 8500C readily to a stability of hundredths
of a degree over several years. The non linearity of the resistance temperature relationships can
be ignored for most industrial pruposes (about 0.4% per 1000C span). Worldwide agreement for
industrial units specifies the resistance as 100 at 00C and 138.5 at 1000C with two accuracy
grades: grade I as 0.2% and grade II so 0.5%.
The change in resistance with temperature of conductor is given by

where - Reference temperature, -

resistance at reference temperature, - temperature coefficient of resistance.

PROCEDURE
 1. Connections are checked and instrument is switched ON by the ON/OFF switch for 10
minutes initial warm up.
2. ¾ full of water is poured to kettle. Sensors and thermometers are placed inside the kettle
and initial temperature on the thermometer is noted.
3. Adjust the initial set potentiometer till display indicates the room temperature.
4. The kettle is switched ON and wait till the water boils and adjust the final set
thermometer to obtain same reading.
5. The sensor and thermometer are removed from the boiling water and placed in the cold
water and cold water temperature is set using initial set potentiometer.
6. The procedure is repeated until display reads exact initial room temperature and final
boiling temperature of water.
7. Take reading for every 100 rise in temperature and also note thermometer readings.
8. Plot the curve for actual reading Vs indicated reading on a graph sheet.

TABULAR COLUMN

SL NO. Actual reading(0C) Indicated reading(0C) % error

CALCULATION

%Error = X 100.

RESULT

Calibrated the given RTD trainer module for the measurement of temperature from room
temperature to boiling point of water
 Experiment-5

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING THERMISTOR

AIM
To calibrate the given thermistor trainer module for the measurement of temperature from
room temperature to the boiling point of water and to plot the graph between actual reading and
indicated reading.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Thermistor sensor 3½ digit LCD display, initial and final set potentiometer, water kettle
and mercury thermometer.

THEORY
Temperature measuring sensor based on the fact that the resistance of a material may
change with temperature is known as the thermistor. Thermistor differ from RTD in that they are
fabricated from semiconductor materials instead of metals. The semiconductor materials in
which includes oxides of copper, cobalt, manganese, nickel and titanium exhibit very large
change in resistancae with temperature. Resistance with temperature can be expressed by an
equation of the pressure.

where P is the specific resistance of the material.

are natural constant and T is absolute temperature.
Thermistors have many advantages over other temperature sensors and are widely used in
industry. They can be small and consequently permit point sensing and rapid response to
temperature change. These high resistance minimizes lead wire problems. Their output is more
than 10 times that of RTD. The disadvantages of thermistors include non linear output with
temperature and limited range.

PROCEDURE
1. Connections are checked and the instrument is switched ON by an ON/OFF switch.
2. The instrument is allowed to be in ON position for 10 minutes initial warm up.
3. ¾ full of water is poured into the kettle. Sensor and the thermometer are placed in the
kettle and initial temperature on the thermometer is noted.
4. Initial set potentiometer is adjusted till display indicates room temperature.
5. The kettle is switched ON and wait till water boils and adjust the final set potentiometer
to get same on display.
6. The sensor is removed from the boiling water and immersed in the cold water and cold
water temperature is noted and set using initial set potentiometers.
7. The procedure is repeated till display reads exact boiling and cold water temperature.
 8. Now the water in kettle is changed and repeat at the exact temperature in the kettle is
shown on display.
9. The reading for every 100 rise in temperature is noted and so is the thermometer reading.

TABULAR COLUMN

SL NO. Actual reading(0C) Indicated reading(0C) % error

CALCULATION

%Error = X 100.

RESULT

Calibrated the given thermistor trainer module for the measurement of temperature from
room temperature to the boiling point of water and plotted the graph between actual reading and
indicated reading