Electronic Instrumentation Unit-2

Measurement of Resistance and Impedance: Low

Resistance: Kelvin's double bridge method, Medium Resistance
by Voltmeter Ammeter method, Wheatstone bridge method,
High Resistance by Megger. A.C. bridges, Measurement of Self
Credits Theory - 04
Inductance, Maxwell's bridge, Hay's bridge, and Anderson's
bridge, Measurement of Capacitance, Schering's bridge,
DeSauty's bridge, Measurement of frequency, Wien's bridge.
A-D and D-A Conversion: 4 bit binary weighted resistor type D-
A conversion, circuit and working. Circuit of R-2R ladder. A-D
conversion characteristics, successive approximation ADC.
(Mention of relevant ICs for all).
Practice Assignment 1 : Errors Submit on…..

Practice Assignment 2 : Meters Submit on…..

Practice Assignment 3 : Frequency Meters ..

W.D. Cooper and A. D. Helfrick,

Joseph J Carr,
Join the discussion Group : Moodle or MS TEams
 Measurement of Resistance and Impedance:
Low Resistance: Kelvin's double bridge method,
Medium Resistance by Voltmeter Ammeter method,
Wheatstone bridge method,
High Resistance by Megger.
A.C. bridges, Measurement of Self Inductance,
Maxwell's bridge, Hay's bridge, and Anderson's bridge,
Measurement of Capacitance,
Schering's bridge,
DeSauty's bridge,
Measurement of frequency, Wien's bridge.

Source: Book by Kalsi

 INTRODUCTION
➢ DC & AC Bridges are used to measure resistance, inductance,
capacitance and impedance.
➢ Operate on a null indication principle. This means the indication is
independent of the calibration of the indicating device or any
characteristics of it.
➢ Very high degrees of accuracy can be achieved using the bridges

13 Mac 2007
Types of bridges
Two types of bridge are used in measurement:

1) DC bridge:
a) Wheatstone Bridge
b) Kelvin Bridge

2) AC bridge:
a) Maxwell Bridge
b) Hay Bridge
c) Schering Bridge
d) Anderson Bridge
e) Wein Bridge
f) DeSauty Bridge
 Wheatstone Bridge
■ Used for measuring ‘medium resistances (1Ω to 10MΩ) ’
■ It is an instrument for making comparison measurements and operates upon a null
indication principle. Hence it is independent of the calibration of null indicating
device or any of its characteristics. Because of this reason, very high accuracies
(0.1%) can be achieved using it.
■ Bridge balance condition :
I1P = I2R (1)
■ For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following condition must be satisfied:
𝐸
𝐼1 = 𝐼3 =
𝑃+𝑄
𝐸
𝐼2 = 𝐼4 =
𝑅+𝑆
■ Where E is the emf of the battery. Combining above three equations
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑃+𝑄 𝑅+𝑆
■ From which we get QR = PS
■ This is known as bridge balance condition.
𝑅 𝑆 𝑅 𝑃
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑆 𝑄
■ The unknown resistance may be connected in place of ‘R’, ‘S’ is the standard arm while ‘P’ and
‘Q’ are ratio arm.
𝑃
𝑅=𝑆
𝑄
Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge
The sensitivity to an unbalance can be determined by solving bridge circuit for a
small unbalance. The sensitivity helps us in determining/selecting:
■ A galvanometer in which a given unbalance can be observed.
■ The minimum unbalance that can be observed with a given galvanometer.
■ The deflection to be expected for a given unbalance.

To determine sensitivity we must convert wheatstone bridge to its ‘Thevenin

Equivalent’ circuit. The bridge is assumed to be in balanced condition when
𝑅 𝑃
=
𝑆 𝑄
■ Suppose the resistance R is changed to R + R creating an unbalance in the bridge. This unbalance
will lead to generation of an emf across the galvanometer.
■ With galvanometer branch open, the voltage drop between points ‘a’ and ‘b’ is:
𝐸𝑃
𝐸𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼1 𝑃 =
𝑃+𝑄
■ Similarly
𝐸(𝑅 + ∆𝑅)
𝐸𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼2 (𝑅 + ∆𝑅) =
𝑅 + ∆𝑅 + 𝑆
■ The voltage difference between the points ‘d’ and ‘b’ is
𝑅 + ∆𝑅 𝑃
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑎𝑑 − 𝐸𝑎𝑏 = 𝐸 −
𝑅 + ∆𝑅 + 𝑆 𝑃 + 𝑄
■ but since
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑃+𝑄 𝑅+𝑆
𝑅 + ∆𝑅 𝑅
𝑒=𝐸 −
𝑅 + ∆𝑅 + 𝑆 𝑅 + 𝑆
𝑅 + ∆𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑆 − 𝑅(𝑅 + ∆𝑅 + 𝑆)
𝑒=𝐸
(𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑆)(𝑅 + 𝑆)
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑆 + ∆𝑅𝑅 + ∆𝑅𝑆 − 𝑅2 − 𝑅∆𝑅 − 𝑅𝑆
𝑒=𝐸
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑆 + ∆𝑅𝑅 + ∆𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑆 2
𝑆∆𝑅
𝑒=𝐸
𝑅 + 𝑆 2 + ∆𝑅(𝑅 + 𝑆)
𝑆∆𝑅
𝑒=𝐸
𝑅+𝑆 2
As R(R+S) << (R+S)2
Let Sv be the voltage sensitivity of galvanometer. Let the deflection obtained in the galvanometer is ‘’
𝐸𝑆∆𝑅
𝜃 = 𝑆𝑣 𝑒 = 𝑆𝑣
𝑅+𝑆 2

The bridge sensitivity ‘SB’ is defined as the deflection of the galvanometer per unit fractional change in
unknown resistance.
𝜃
𝑆𝐵 =
∆𝑅Τ𝑅
𝑺𝒗 𝑬𝑺𝑹
𝑺𝑩 =
𝑹+𝑺 𝟐
From the previous equation it is clear that the sensitivity of the bridge is dependent on the bridge
voltage, bridge resistances and the voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer.
■ Rearranging above equation
𝑆𝑣 𝐸 𝑆𝑣 𝐸
𝑆𝐵 = =
𝑅 + 𝑆 2 /𝑆𝑅 𝑅 + 2 + 𝑆
𝑆 𝑅
𝑆𝑣 𝐸
𝑆𝐵 =
𝑃 𝑄
+2+
𝑄 𝑃
■ Maximum sensitivity occurs when R/S = 1. As the ratio becomes smaller or larger than unity the
sensitivity decreases.
■ For a bridge with equal arms R=S=P=Q
■ Bridge sensitivity is
𝑆𝑣 𝐸
𝑆𝐵 =
4
■ The maximum sensitivity is when the ratio is unity. If we increase the ratio to P/Q = R/S = 1000, the
sensitivity would be about 1/250 of that for unity ratio.
Measurement Errors

Parameters which effect precision measurement using wheatstone bridge:

1. Resistance of connecting leads
2. Limiting error of known resistances
3. Insufficient sensitivity of the detector
4. Thermoelectric effects or contact potential
5. Change in resistances of the bridge arms due to heating effect (I2R) or change in
temperature
6. Contact resistance
4,5 and 6 may become quite significant during measurement of low resistance.
Kelvin’s Bridge
■ Drawback of Wheatstone bridge -
– measure the resistance from few ohm to mega ohm
– low resistance measurement gives significant error.
■ Kelvin Bridge - suitable for measuring low resistance value (few micro ohm to 1.0
ohm).
In the circuit shown, Ry represents the resistance of the
connecting leads from R3 to Rx.
If galvanometer is connected to point ‘a’, Ry is added to Rx.
When connected to point ‘c’, Ry is added to R3.
In both cases we do not get the true value of Rx.
If it is connected to point ‘b’ in such a way that the ratio of
resistance Rcb and Rab equals the ratio of R1 and R2 then
 Rcb R1
From Figure = (1)
Rab R2
Bridge balance equation is given R1R3= R2Rx (2)
as:
R3 and Rx now are changed to R3+Rab and Rx+ Rcb

R1(R3+Rab) = R2(Rx+Rcb)
R1
Rx + Rcb = ( R3 + Rab ) (3)
R2
Rcb R1
+1 = + 1 From eqn 1 (4)
Rab R2
Rcb + Rab R1 + R2 (5)
=
Rab R2
Rcb+ Rab= Ry
Ry R1 + R2 R2 Ry
= (6) Rab = (7)
Rab R2 R1 + R2
Rcb= Ry- Rab
R2 Ry  R2 
Rcb = Ry − Rcb = Ry 1 − 
R1 + R2  R1 + R2 
R1 Ry
Rcb = (8)
R1 + R2
Substituting the values in eqn (3)
R1 Ry R1  R2 Ry 
Rx + =  R3 + 
R1 + R2 R2  R1 + R2 
R1 Ry R1 R3 R1 Ry
Rx + = +
R1 + R2 R2 R1 + R2

This is the balance eq which indicates that

R1 R3
Rx = (9) the effect of the resistance of the connecting
R2 leads (a to c) has been eliminated by connecting
the galvanometer at position b.
Kelvin’s Double Bridge
The effect of the resistance of the connecting leads
(a to c) has been eliminated by connecting the
galvanometer at position ‘b’.

This is the basis of the construction of Kelvin’s

Double Bridge. This bridge consists of a second set
of ratio arms to which galvanometer is connected,
as shown in figure. The ratio of resistances of arms
‘a’ and ‘b’ is the same as the ratio of R1 and R2.
The galvanometer indicates zero when potential at k
and c are equal.
AC Bridges
■ When the four resistive arms of the basic Wheatstone bridge are replaced by
impedances and the bridge is excited by an AC source, the result is an AC Bridge.
■ To balance the bridge, two conditions must be satisfied, the resistive (R) and the
reactive components (XC or XL). Once balanced, the AC Bridge indicates a null.
■ AC bridge circuits are also used for shifting phase, providing feedback paths for
oscillators and amplifiers, filtering out undesired signals, and measuring the
frequency of audio and radio frequency (RF) signals.
■ Bridge balance condition is given as:

■ In admittance form Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3

■ Polar form of Impedance

Y1Y4 = Y2Y3
■ Substituting polar value in balance condition
Z1 = Z11 Z2 = Z2 2 Z3 = Z3 3 Z4 = Z4 4

■ Equating both sides

Z11 Z 4 4 = Z 2 2 Z3 3
Z1 Z4  (1 + 4 ) = Z2 Z3  (2 + 3 )

Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z3 1 +  4 =  2 + 3
Maxwell Bridge
Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge

Measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitor.

■ The general bridge balance equation is,
Z1 Z x = Z2 Z3
Z 2 Z3
Zx = = Z 2 Z 3 Y1
1 Z1
Y1 =
■ Where Z1 i.e. R1 in parallel with C1

Z 2 = R2
1
Z3 = R3 Z x = Rx + jwLx Y1 = + jwC1
R1
 1 
Rx + jwLx = R2 R3  + jwC1 
 R1 
R2 R3
Rx + jwLx = + jR2 R3 wC1
R1

R2 R3
R =
■ Equatingxreal and imaginary
R1 terms Lx = R2 R3C1
 wLx wR2 R3 C1
■ Quality factor is given by:
Q = =
Rx  R2 R3 
 
 R1 
Q = wR1C1

The advantage of using standard known capacitor for measurement are:

■ The capacitors are less expensive than stable and accurate standard inductors.
■ The capacitors are almost lossless
■ External fields have less effect on a capacitor. The standard inductor requires well shielding in order to eliminate the
effect of stray magnetic fields.

The advantages of Maxwell bridge are:

■ The balance equation is independent of losses associated with inductance
■ The balance equation is independent of frequency of measurement
■ The scale of the resistance can be calibrated to read the inductance directly
■ The scale of R1 can be calibrated to read the Q value directly.
Hay’s Bridge
■ The Hay’s bridge is a modification of Maxwell’s bridge.
■ The Hay Bridge, differs from Maxwell's bridge by having a resistance R1 in series with
a standard capacitor C1 instead of a parallel. For large phase angles, R1 needs to be
low; therefore, this bridge is more convenient for measuring high Q coils.
■ The Hay circuit is more convenient for measuring high-Q inductors especially those
having a Q >10
■ The condition for the bridge balance
point :
Z1 Z x = Z 2 Z3
where
j
Z1 = R1 −
wC1
Z 2 = R2 Z3 = R3
Zx = Rx + jwLx
  j 
 R1 −  ( Rx + jwLx ) = R2 R3
 wC1 
 Lx jRx 
 R1 Rx + − + jwLx R1  = R2 R3
 C1 wC1 
■ Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
Rx Lx
wLx R1 = R1 Rx + = R2 R3
wC1 C1
■ Solving for Lx and Rx
w2 C12 R1 R2 R3 C1 R2 R3
Rx = Lx =
1 + w2 C12 R12 1 + w2 C12 R12

■ The term ω appears in the expression for both Lx and Rx. This indicates that the bridge is
frequency sensitive. It is also used in the measurement of incremental inductance. The
inductance balance equation depends on the losses of the inductor (or Q) and also on the
operating frequency.
■ An inconvenient feature of this bridge is that the equation giving the balance
condition for inductance, contains the multiplier 1/ (1 + 1/Q2). The inductance
balance thus depends on its Q and frequency.

E E
I1 = I 3 = I2 = I4 =
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
R2 R3 C1
Lx =
1 + (1 / Q )
2

■ For a value of Q greater than 10, the term L/Q2 will be smaller than 1/100 and
can be therefore neglected.
■ The Q value is given as: 1
Q =
wC4 R4
Advantages & Disadvantages of Hay's Bridge

■ ADVANTAGE:- The bridge gives very simple expression for the calculation of unknown inductor
of high value. The Hay's bridge require low value of r4 while Maxwell bridge requires high value
of r4.

■ DISADVANTAGE:-Hay's bridge is not suitable for measurement of quality factor (Q<10) for Q<10
we should use Maxwell bridge.
Schering’s Bridge
■ Precise measurement of capacitance, dissipation factor of capacitors.

Z1 Z x = Z 2 Z3
Z 2 Z3
Zx = = Z 2 Z 3 Y1
Z1
𝑍𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 - 𝑗Τ𝜔𝐶𝑥
Z 2 = R2
𝑍3 = - 𝑗Τ𝜔𝐶3
𝑌1 = 1Τ𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶1

■ As 𝑍𝑥 = 𝑍2 𝑍3 𝑌1
𝑗 −𝑗 1
■ 𝑅𝑥 − = 𝑅2 𝑥 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶1
𝜔𝐶𝑥 𝜔𝐶3 𝑅1
 𝑗 𝑅2 (−𝑗) 𝑅2 𝐶1
𝑅𝑥 − = 𝑅2 +
𝜔𝐶𝑥 𝑅1 (𝜔𝐶3 ) 𝐶3
Comparing real and imaginary terms, we get
𝑅2 𝐶1
𝑅𝑥 =
𝐶3
𝑅1
𝐶𝑥 = 𝐶3
𝑅2
The dissipation factor D of a series RC circuit is given as
𝑅𝑥
𝐷= = 𝜔𝐶𝑥 𝑅𝑥
𝑋𝑥
The Quality factor is given as
1
𝐷=
𝑄
Wien’s Bridge
■ Measures frequency and capacitor
■ Has a series RC combination in one arm and parallel combination in the adjoining
arm.
11.21

11.22

11.23
■ Satisfying eqn 11.21 and exciting the bridge with the frequency of eqn 11.23 will
balance the bridge.
■ To simply further, in Wein bridge the components are chosen such that R1 = R3 = R
and C1 =C3 = C. By choosing such values the eqn 11.21 reduces to R2/R4 = 2 and
eqn 11.23 to f = 1/2RC.
■ The bridge is used to measure frequency in the audio range.
■ It can also be used to measure capacitance.
■ It is also used as ‘Notch Filter’.
■ An accuracy of 0.5% to 1 % is easily achieved using this bridge.
Anderson Bridge
■ It is a modification of Maxwell and Wien’s bridges.
DeSauty’s Bridge
 A-D and D-A Conversion:
4 bit binary weighted resistor type D-A conversion,
circuit and working.
Circuit of R-2R ladder.
A-D conversion characteristics,
successive approximation ADC.
(Mention of relevant ICs for all).

Valued Inputs from –

• Dr. Amit Pundir
• Dr. Geetika Jain Saxena
• Dr Vandana Kumari
Source: Book by Kalsi • Dr. Sangeeta Yadav
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
The purpose of the DAC is to convert digital data into an analog signal.

DAC Applications:
■ DAC’s can be found in any device that interfaces digital and analog circuitry
■ Analog Displays
■ Digital Control Systems
■ Digital Audio
■ Communications
■ Countless other applications
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERTER OPERATION

■ Diagram of a 4-bit parallel-input DAC. For a 4-bit DAC, there are 24= 16 possible input data codes, as
shown above. DACs will have an analog reference (VREF), along with power supply (VA), and an
analog output. In many cases, the reference and supply voltages may be the same, and therefore
the DAC will have a single pin for both functions. Also, the reference can be a voltage or a current,
depending on DAC design. The DAC multiplies the input data code by the reference to generate the
output.
Types of DAC Circuits

■ Resistor-string
■ N-Bit Binary Weighted Resistor
■ R-2R Ladder
A Resistor-string DAC
Resistor String DAC Example
N-Bit Binary Weighted Resistor
N-bit binary weighted Example
N-bit binary weighted Example
DAC ARCHITECTURES R-2R
■ R-2R Ladder DACs are another very common topology. In Figure, this voltage output DAC uses two
values of resistors, with a ratio of 2-to-1. The number of resistors is much reduced compared to
string DACs. Any R2-R DAC needs just 2N resistors – making trimming the resistors values easier. A 4-
bit DAC requires only 8 resistors. To the right of the R-2R diagram is an IC DAC which includes parallel
input code register, along with support function blocks.
■ The R-2R ladder can either be designed with a voltage or current output. A key benefit of using the
voltage output is the constant output impedance which makes it easier to interface with a buffer
amplifier on the output.
■ There are several variants of the R-2R ladder topology to increase performance as process
technology improves.
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
■ A device that provides an output that digitally represents the input voltage or current level.
■ An electronic integrated circuit which transforms a signal from analog (continuous) to digital
(discrete) form.
■ An ADC has an analog reference voltage or current against which the analog input is compared. The
digital output word tells us what fraction of the reference voltage or current is the input voltage or
current.
Why ADC is needed?
■ ADC are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal has to be processed, stored, or
transported in digital form.
■ Microprocessors can only perform complex processing on digitized signals.
■ When signals are in digital form they are less susceptible to the deleterious effects of additive noise.
■ ADC Provides a link between the analog world of transducers and the digital world of signal
processing and data handling.
■ Some examples of ADC usage are digital voltmeters, microprocessors, thermocouples, and digital
oscilloscope etc.
ADC Process

It involves two steps

■ Sampling and Holding (S/H)
■ Quantizing and Encoding (Q/E)
ADC may be considered to be a Divider
■ Output says: Input is What Fraction of VREF?

Output = 2n x G x AIN / VREF

n = number of Output Bits (Resolution)
G = Gain Factor (usually “1”)
AIN = Analog Input Voltage (or Current)
VREF (IREF)= Reference Voltage (or Current)
What, Exactly, Does An Analog to-
Digital Converter Do?

■ For a 3-bit ADC, there are 8 possible output codes. The difference between each output code is
VREF /23.
■ In this example, if the input voltage is 5.5V and the reference is 8V, then the output will be 101.
■ More bits give better resolution and smaller steps.
■ A lower reference voltage gives smaller steps, but can be at the expense of noise.
Quantizing and Encoding
■ Resolution: The smallest change in analog signal that will result in a change in the digital output. If
– V = Reference voltage range
– N = Number of bits in digital output.
– 2N = Number of states.
– ΔV = Resolution
The resolution represents the quantization error inherent in the conversion of the signal to digital form.
■ Assuming that the output response has no errors, every time you increase the voltage at the input
by 1 Volt, the output code will increase by one bit. This means, in this example, that the least
significant bit (LSB) represents 1 Volt, which is the smallest increment that this converter can
resolve. For this reason, we can say that the resolution of this converter is 1.0V because we can
resolve voltages as small as a volt. Resolution may also be stated in bits.
LSB Values by Resolution and Reference Voltage
■ The value of an LSB depends upon the ADC Reference Voltage and Resolution

■ Since one LSB is equal to VREF /2n, it stands to reason that better accuracy (lower error) can be
realized if we did either (or both) of two things: (1) use a higher resolution converter and/or (2) use
a smaller reference voltage.
■ The problem with higher resolution (more bits) is the cost. The problem with reducing the
reference voltage is a loss of input dynamic range. Again, we also can lose a small signal in the
noise, causing a loss of SNR performance.
Sampling and
Holding

■ Holding signal benefits the accuracy of

the A/D Conversion
■ Minimum sampling rate should be at
least twice the highest data frequency of
the analog signal
Quantizing and Encoding
Quantizing:
■ Partitioning the reference signal range into a
number of discrete quanta, then matching
the input signal to the correct quantum.
Encoding:
■ Assigning a unique digital code to each
quantum, then allocating the digital code to
the input signal.
Accuracy of A/D Conversion
There are two ways to best improve the accuracy of A/D conversion:
■ increasing the resolution which improves the accuracy in measuring the amplitude of the
analog signal.
■ increasing the sampling rate which increases the maximum frequency that can be measured.
 Quantization Error
■ In a 3-bit ADC, an ADC input of zero produces an
output code of zero (000). As the input voltage
increases towards VREF/8, the error also increases
because the input is no longer zero, but the output
code remains at zero because a range of input
voltages is represented by a single output code.
When the input reaches VREF/8, the output code
changes from 000 to 001, where the output exactly
represents the input voltage and the error reduces
to zero. As the input voltage increases past VREF/8,
the error again increases until the input voltage
reaches VREF/4, where the error again drops to zero.
This process continues through the entire input
range and the error plot is a saw tooth, as shown
here.
Adding 1/2 LSB Offset
With an input voltage of zero, the output code is
zero (000), as before. As the input voltage
increases towards the 1/2 LSB level, the error
increases because the input is no longer zero, but
the output code remains at zero. When the input
reaches 1/2 LSB, the output code changes from
000 to 001. The input is not yet at the 1 LSB level,
but only at 1/2 LSB, so the error is now -1/2 LSB.
As the input increases past 1/2 LSB, the error
becomes less negative, until the input reaches 1
LSB, where the error is zero. As the input
increases beyond 1 LSB, the error increases until
the input reaches 11/2 LSB, where output code is
increased by one and the sign of the error again
becomes negative. This process continues through
the entire input range.
■ The maximum error we have here is 1 LSB. This 0 to 1 LSB range is known as the “quantization
uncertainty” because there are a range of analog input values that could have caused any given
code and we are uncertain at to exactly what the input voltage was that caused a given code. The
maximum quantization uncertainty is also known as the “quantization error”. This error results
from the finite resolution of the ADC. That is, the ADC can only resolve the input into 2n discrete
values. Each output code represents a range of input values. This range of values is a quanta, to
which we assign the symbol q.
■ The converter resolution, then, is 2n. So, for an 8 Volt reference (with a unity gain factor), a 3-bit
converter resolves the input into VREF/8 = 8V/8 = 1 Volt steps. Quantization error, then, is a round
off error.
Accuracy of A/D Conversion
Types of A/D Converters
■ Dual Slope A/D Converter
■ Successive Approximation A/D Converter
■ Flash A/D Converter
■ Delta-Sigma A/D Converter
■ Other
– Voltage-to-frequency, staircase ramp or single slope, switched capacitor
Thanks

28-05-2022 Dr. Amit Pundir, Maharaja Agrasen College 72