Surge Impedance Loading:

Let’s first understand what is surge impedance?

As it is known that, for long transmission line (>250 km), the inductance and capacitance of the
line are uniformly distributed over the whole length of the line. When the line is charged, the
capacitance feeds reactive power (capacitive VAR) to the line, while inductance of the line absorbs
reactive power (inductive VAR).
Now, if we consider capacitive VAR = inductive VAR
𝑉2
= 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐿
𝑋𝐶

𝑉 𝐼 𝐿
⇒ = √𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 = √𝑗𝜔𝐿 = √ = 𝑍𝑆 known as surge impedance.
𝐼 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝐶

Characteristic impedance of a transmission line is given as,

𝑧
𝑍𝐶 = √
𝑦

Multiply length of the line 𝑙 on both numerator and denominator, we will get total impedance of
the line.

𝑧. 𝑙 𝑍
𝑍𝐶 = √ =√
𝑦. 𝑙 𝑌

We can say, the characteristic impedance of the transmission line is independent of length of the
line as it is common in both numerator and denominator. However, it depends very much on the
parameters/characteristics of the transmission line i.e., R, X, G and B by holding the following
relations,
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝑌 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵
When we consider practical heavy well insulated conductors, the R and G values are neglected
mostly. We can write,
𝑍 = 𝑗𝑋
𝑌 = 𝑗𝐵
As R and G are absent, we can say the line to be a loss less line. Therefore, 𝑍𝑜 becomes the surge
impedance of the transmission line.
 𝑗𝑋 𝜔𝐿 𝐿
𝑍𝑜 = √ =√ =√
𝑗𝐵 𝜔𝐶 𝐶

In the above expression, we can say L and C are independent of the frequency as they are cancelling
out. So, 𝑍𝑜 becomes pure resistive and the respective load is called as a pure resistive load.

Measurement of surge impedance

The surge impedance can be measured by the following two tests,
1. Line at the receiving end is open circuited  𝐼𝑅 = 0
From the ABCD parameters of the transmission line,
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 and IS = CVR + DIR
⇒ 𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 & ⇒ IS = CVR
Now, the open circuited impedance can be given as,
𝑉𝑆 𝐴𝑉𝑅 𝐴
𝑍𝑂𝐶 = = = -------- (1)
IS CVR 𝐶

2. Line at the receiving end is short circuited  𝑉𝑅 = 0

From the ABCD parameters of the transmission line,

𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅 and IS = CVR + DIR
⇒ 𝑉𝑆 = 𝐵𝐼𝑅 & ⇒ IS = DIR
Now, the short circuited impedance can be given as,
𝑉𝑆 𝐵𝐼𝑅 𝐵
𝑍𝑆𝐶 = = = ----------(2)
IS DIR 𝐷

Multiplying equation (1) and (2)

𝐴 𝐵
∙ = 𝑍𝑂𝐶 𝑍𝑆𝐶
𝐶 𝐷

𝐵 𝑧𝐶 sinh( 𝛾𝑙)
⇒ 𝑍𝑂𝐶 𝑍𝑆𝐶 = =
𝐶 1
sinh( 𝛾𝑙)
𝑧𝐶
⇒ (𝑍𝐶 )2 = 𝑍𝑂𝐶 𝑍𝑆𝐶

⇒ 𝑍𝐶 = √𝑍𝑂𝐶 𝑍𝑆𝐶

In practice R and G are neglected on a transmission line. So surge impedance and characteristics
impedance are same.
Surge impedance loading
It is defined as the load (having unity power factor) that can be delivered by the line of negligible
resistance. mathematically,
(𝑉𝑅𝐿 )2
𝑃𝑅 = MW
𝑍𝑜

where, 𝑉𝑅𝐿 = Receiving end voltage in kV

& 𝑍𝑜 = surge impedance in ohms
Therefore, surge impedance loading can also be use to predict the maximum loading capacity of a
transmission line.
For, 𝑃𝑅 to increase 𝑉𝑅𝐿 should increase or 𝑍𝑜 should reduce.
For maximum power transfer capability, most of the transmission line are of high voltage
transmission these days, however, it also has a limiting value. As beyond that limit cost of
insulation and its maintenance gets affected. Therefore, it has a upper end limit to 𝑉𝑅𝐿 . The other
factor that affects the power transfer capability is propagation constant.

𝛾 = √𝑧𝑦=√(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐵)(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿) = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽

If we consider a practical line ignoring R and G values,

𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔√𝐿𝐶 = 𝑗𝛽
𝛽 determines the torque angle 𝛿 between VS and VR. Therefore, if 𝛽 increases the stability of the system
decreases.

Now the second parameter which affects the power transfer capacity is 𝑍𝑜 . Controlling 𝑍𝑜 to get more
𝑃𝑅 is naturally not possible as it depends on the value of L and C parameters of the transmission
line, which are fixed once the line is designed. It can be done artificially through compensation
techniques.
1. Shunt capacitor:
Adding shut capacitor will increase the value of C.
This decreases the value of 𝑍𝑜 , as

𝐿
𝑍𝑜 = √
𝐶

However, value of 𝛽 also increases, as

𝑗𝛽 = 𝑗𝜔√𝐿𝐶

That makes the power system unstable. So adding shunt capacitor is not a feasible solution for
increasing PR.
2. Series Capacitor:
Adding series capacitor, L , as effective reactance reduces.

𝐿
𝑍𝑜 = √
𝐶

Thus, 𝛽 and stability of the system improves.  Advantage 1

Again, because of inductance reduction, impedance of the line will also reduce. This also ensure lower
voltage drop across the transmission line.  Advantage 2
However, under fault conditions, the capacitor may damage, as it is designed for a particular current
carrying capacitor. Under fault condition, when high fault current passes through the capacitor, it may
damage. Therefore, additional protective equipment need to be placed for protecting the capacitor.

Effect of surge impedance loading

Fig. Surge impedance loading of a lossless line

𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 +𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
A = 𝐷 = cosh( γl) = cosh( 𝑗𝛽𝑙) = = cos(𝛽𝑙)
2

𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 −𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
B = zC sinh( γl) = zC = zC jsin(𝛽𝑙) = 𝑗zC sin(𝛽𝑙)
2
1 1 1
C= sinh( γl) = sinh( 𝑗𝛽𝑙) = j sin(𝛽𝑙)
zC zC zC

The voltage at a distance 𝑥 from the receiving end is written as,

V(x) = cosh( γx)VR + zC sinh( γx)IR = cos(𝛽𝑥)VR + j zC sin( 𝛽𝑥)IR
VR
⇒ cos(𝛽𝑥)VR + j zC sin( 𝛽𝑥) ∙ = [cos(𝛽𝑥) + 𝑗 sin( 𝛽𝑥)]𝑉𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ∠(𝛽𝑥)
ZC

⇒ |V(x)| = 𝑉𝑅
This implies that voltage at any point x has a magnitude of VR. Only phase displacement will be
there.
1 1
I(x) = sinh( γx)VR + cosh( γx)IR = 𝑗 sin(𝛽𝑥)VR + cos(𝛽𝑥)IR
zC zC
 1 VR VR VR
⇒𝑗 sin(𝛽𝑥)VR + cos(𝛽𝑥) = (cos(𝛽𝑥) + 𝑗sin(𝛽𝑥)) = 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 = 𝐼𝑅 ∠(𝛽𝑥)
zC ZC ZC ZC

⇒ |I(x)| = 𝐼𝑅
This implies that the magnitude of the current at any point of the line is constant and has a
magnitude of IR.

𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑅(𝑛𝑙) =
cos(𝛽𝑙)

𝑉𝑅(𝑆𝐼𝐿) = 𝑉𝑆

𝑉𝑅(𝐹.𝐿)

𝑉𝑅(𝑆𝐶) = 0

(Fig. Source: Google)

The complex power 𝑆(𝑥) at any point x along the line may be obtained as,
𝑉𝑅 ∗ |𝑉𝑅 |2
𝑆(𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑗𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑉(𝑥)𝐼(𝑥)∗ = 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 𝑉𝑅 (𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 ) =
𝑍𝐶 𝑍𝐶

𝑆(𝑥) remains constant from the sending end to the receiving end and as 𝑍𝐶 is resistive there is no
reactive power flows in the line and
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑄𝑆 = 0
 𝐿
𝜔𝐿|𝐼𝑅 |2 = 𝜔𝐶|𝑉𝑅 |2 ⇒ 𝑍𝐶 = √
𝐶

𝑉𝑅2 (𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑)
𝑆𝐼𝐿 =
𝑍𝐶
In practice the load on the line may be only fraction of SIL under no load condition. For loads
higher than SIL, shunt capacitance is needed to minimize the voltage drop and shunt inductance is
needed to compensate the line charging current.