TOPIC 3: NOTE: , it is desirable that the voltage regulation of a

PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE transmission line should be low i.e., the increase in load current
Objective should make very little difference in the receiving end voltage

1:Explain the classification of Overhead transmission lines b)Transmission efficiency - The ratio of receiving end power
i. Short transmission line to the sending end power of a transmission line
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
ii. Medium transmission line % transmission efficiency 𝜂 = 𝑥 100
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅
iii. Long transmission line = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑠

Classification of Transmision line Performance of A single phase Short Transmission lines

Important consideration in design and operation of Let I = load current
transmission are determination of voltage drop, line losses and
R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
efficiency transmission.
The values are influenced by line constant R, L and C of the XL = loop reactance
line. VR = receiving end voltage
Eg. Voltage drop depends upon the three constants. cos R = receiving end power factor (lagging)
Resistance – causes power loss in line and determines the VS = sending end voltage
transmission efficiency.
Transmission lines are divided into Three
i. Short transmission line
ii. Medium transmission line
iii. Long transmission line

a)Short transmission line

- Has length of 20km to 50km
-Has low voltage of less than 20kV i.e (< 20 kV) The figure (ii) shows the phasor diagram.
- due to short length and low voltage, the capacitance effects (𝑂𝐶)2 = (𝑂𝐷)2 + (𝐷𝐶)2
are smaller and can be neglected. 𝑉𝑠 2 = (𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝐷)2 + (𝐷𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶)2
𝑉𝑠 2 = (𝑉𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑅 Sin∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2
b)Medium transmission line 𝑉𝑠 = √(𝑉𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑅 Sin∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2
- Has length between 50km to 150km
- Moderate voltage above 20kV but less than 100KV. I.e (>20 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑅
i) % Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
kV < 100 kV) 𝑉𝑅
𝑂𝐷 𝑉𝑅 cos∅𝑅 +𝐼𝑅
-Capacitance effects are taken into account .For calculation, ii) sending end pf , ∅𝑠 = =
𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝑠
the distributed capacitance of the line divided and jumped in iii)Power delivered = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅
condenser from shunted across the line or at one of more Line losses = 𝐼 2 𝑅
points. Power Sent out = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼 2 𝑅
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
% transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
c)Long Transmission line 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡

- When the length of an overhead transmission line is more than 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅

150 km and line voltage is very high (> 100 kV), it is considered = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼 2 𝑅
as a long transmission line. For the treatment of such a line,
the line constants are considered uniformly distributed over the An approximate expression for the sending end voltage = Vs
whole length of the line and rigorous methods are employed can be obtained as follows. Draw perpendicular from B and C
for solution. on OA produced as shown in Figure 10.2. Then OC is nearly
NOTE_ It may be emphasised here that exact solution of any equal to OF i.e.
tranmission line must consider the fact that the constants of
the line are not lumped but are distributed unfiormly
throughout the length of the line. However, reasonable
accuracy can be obtained by considering these constants as
lumped for short and medium transmission lines.

Definition of Terms in transmission line OC = OF = OA + AF = OA + AG + GF

= OA + AG + BH
a)Voltage regulation - The difference in voltage at the 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + IRCos∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
receiving end of a transmission line between conditions of no
load and full load
𝑉 −𝑉
% Voltage regulation = 𝑠 𝑅 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅

37 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

SOLUTION IN COMPLEX NOTATION considered, phase values of 3-phase system should be taken.
It is often convenient and profitable to make the line Thus, 𝑉𝑠 and 𝑉𝑅 are the phase voltages, whereas R and 𝑋𝐿
calculations in complex notation. are the resistance and inductive reactance per phase
Taking ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VR as the reference phasor, draw the phasor diagram as respectively.
shown in figure 10.3 Fig. 10.4 (i) shows a Y-connected generator supplying a
It is clear that ⃗⃗⃗
Vs is the phasor sum of I⃗ Z
⃗ balanced Y-connected load through a transmission line. Each
⃗⃗⃗⃗ conductor has a resistance of R Ω and inductive reactance of
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0
𝑋𝐿 Ω. Fig. 10.4(ii) shows one phase separately. The
𝐼 = 𝐼 < −∅𝑅 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) calculations can now be made in the same way as for a single
𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 phase line.
⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑠 =𝑉
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍
=( 𝑉𝑅 + j0)+ I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )( R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) Effects of Load Pf on regulation and efficiency
= ( 𝑉𝑅 + IRCos∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) + j(𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) a)Effects on regulations
𝑉𝑠 = √( 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )2 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
The second term under the root is quite small and can be 𝑉𝑅

neglected with reasonable accuracy. Therefore, approximate For (lag.pf)

𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 − 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
expression for 𝑉𝑠 becomes : % Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 For Leading pf.

NOTE: The following conclusions can be drawn from the above

i)The approximate formula for expressions
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 gives fairly correct results i)When the load p.f. is lagging or unity or such leading that I R
for lagging power factors. However, appreciable error is cos R > I XL sin R, then voltage regulation is positive i.e.,
caused for leading power factors. Therefore, approximate
receiving end voltage VR will be less than the sending end
expression for 𝑉𝑠 Should be used for lagging pf only.
ii) The solution in complex notation is more presentable form. voltage VS.
ii)For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line
b)Effects on Transmission efficiency increases with the decrease in p.f. for lagging loads.
The power delivered to the load depends upon the power iii)When the load p.f. is leading to this extent that I XL sin R >
factor.
I R cos R, then voltage regulation is negative i.e. the receiving
P = 𝑉𝑅 ICos ∅𝑅 ( for 1-phase)
𝑃 end voltage VR is more than the sending end voltage VS.
I=
𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅 iv)For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line
P = 3𝑉𝑅 ICos ∅𝑅 ( for 3-phase)
𝑃 decreases with the decrease in p.f. for leading loads.
I=
3 𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅
Example
It is clear that in each case, for a given amount of power to be A single phase overhead transmission line delivers 1100
transmitted (P) and receiving end voltage kW at 33 kV at 0·8 p.f. lagging. The total resistance and
(VR), the load current I is inversely proportional to the load p.f. inductive reactance of the line are 10  and 15 
cos R. Consequently, with the decrease in load p.f., the load respectively. Determine:
current and hence the line losses are increased. This leads to (i) Sending end voltage
the conclusion that trans- mission efficiency of a line de- Sln
creases with the decrease in load Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 lagging
p.f. and vice-versa, 𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 10 + j15
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 33kV = 33000V
𝑘𝑊 𝑥 103 1100 𝑥 103
THREE PHASE SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES Line current, I = = = 41.67 A
𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅 33000 𝑥 0.8
For reasons associated with economy, transmission of electric
power is done by 3-phase system. This system may be regarded As Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6
as consisting of three single phase units, each wire transmitting 𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
one-third of the total power. As a matter of convenience, we
generally analyse 3-phase system by considering

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0
𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
= 41.67 ( 0.8 – j0.6) = 33.33 – j25
one phase only. Therefore, expression for regulation,
efficiency etc. derived for a single phase line can also be Sending end Voltage: ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍
𝑉𝑠 =𝑉
applied to a 3-phase system. Since only one phase is = 33000 + (33.33 – j25.0)(10+ j15)
= 33000 + 333.3 – j250 + j500 + 375
38 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
 = 33708.3 + j250
Magnitude of 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑠 = √( 33708.3)2 + (250)2 = 33709V

(ii) Sending end power factor

Angle between : ⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 is
𝟐𝟓𝟎
∝= 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟎 b)Voltage regulation of the line
𝟑𝟑𝟕𝟎𝟖.𝟑
Sending end power factor angle ∅𝒔 = ∅𝑅 + ∝ = 36.87 + 0.42 Sln
𝑉 −𝑉
= 37.290 % Voltage regulation = 𝑠 𝑅 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
Sending end power factor Cos ∅𝑠 = Cos 37.29 = 0.7956 11867−10.2
lagging = 𝑥 100 = 16.34%
10.2

(iii) Transmission efficiency. c)The value of the capacitor to be placed in parallel with
the load such that the regulation is reduced by 60% of that
Line losses = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = (41.67)2 x 10 = 17364W obtained in part (a)
= 17.364kW Sln
Output delivered = 1100kW Voltage regulation required = 0.60 x 16.34 = 9.804%
Power sent = 1000 + 17.364 = 1117.364 KW Therefore under this condition, we can write:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑠 − 10.2
Hence, Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100 = 0.09804
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 10.2
=
1100
𝑥 100 = 98.44% 𝑉𝑠 = 11.2kV
1117.364
Alternative The figure below shows the equivalent circuit of the line with
𝑉𝑠 and ∅𝑠 can also be calculated as follows. a capacitor parallel with the load.
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
= 33000 + 41.67 x 10 x 0.8 + 41.67 x 15 x 0.6
= 33000 + 333.36 + 375.03
= 33708.39 Which is approximately the same as above
𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅 33000 𝑥0.8+41.67 𝑥 10 26816.7
Cos∅𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑅 = =
𝑉𝑠 33708.39 33708.37
= 0.7958
Assuming combined pf of the load and capacitor = Cos ∅𝑅
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
Example
A Single phase 60Hz generator supplies an inductive load And the difference in Sending voltage is given by:
of 4500kW at a power factor of 0.8 lagging by means of an (11.2 – 10.2 )x 103 = 𝐼𝑅 (𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) …… (i)
20km long overhead transmission line. The line resistance Since the capacitance does not draw any real power, we have,
4500
and inductance are 0.0195Ω and 0.60mH per km. The 𝐼𝑅 = ……. (ii)
10.2𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅
voltage at the receiving end is required to be kept constant From eqtn (i) and (ii), we get
at 10.2kV. Find:
4.52tan ∅𝑅 = 1.876
a)The sending end voltage
tan ∅𝑅 = 0.415
REF: POWER SYTEM BY WADHWA Pg 131-132 ∅𝑅 = 22.5𝑜
Sln Cos ∅𝑅 = Cos 22.5 = 0.9239
4500
Line constants are: So 𝐼𝑅 = = 477.56 A
10.2 𝑥 0.9238
R = 0.0195 x 20 = 0.39 Ω Now 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅 - I
X = 0.60 x 10−3 x 2𝜋 x 60 x 20 = 4.52 Ω 𝐼𝑅 =477.56< −22.50 = 441.2 – j182.75
Since this is ashort line I = 551.47< −36.870 = 441.2 – j330.88
I = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝐶 = 441.2 – j182.75 – (441.2 –j330.88) = j148.13A
𝑘𝑊 4500 𝑥 103 1 𝑉 10.2 𝑥 1000
Line current, I =
𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅
=
10.20 𝑥 0.8
= 551.47 A 𝑋𝐶 = = 𝑅=
2𝜋𝑥60 𝑥𝐶 𝐼𝐶 148.13
But 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) And C = 38.5𝜇F
= Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 lagging
𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 0.39 + j4.25 d)Compare the transmission efficiency in parts (a) and (c)
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 10.2kV = 10200V Sln
As Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6 Case a
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
∴ 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) Transmission efficiency = =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑠 = 10200 + 551.47(0.39𝑥0.8 + 4.52𝑥0.6) 4500
𝜂 = −3 𝑥 100 = 97.43%
|𝑉𝑠 | = 11.867 kV 4500+ (551.47)2 𝑥 0.39 𝑥 10
Case c
4500
𝜂 = 𝑥 100 = 98.06%
4500+ (477.56)2 𝑥 0.39 𝑥 10−3
It is to be noted that by placing a capacitor in parallel with
the load, the receiving end power factor improves from 0.8 to
0.9238 which also improves the efficiency
39 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
 The sending end Voltage magnitude
Example 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
An overhead 3-phase transmission line delivers 5000 kW |𝑉𝑠 |= 127000 + 787.4(9𝑥0.8 + 26.39𝑥0.6)
at 22 kV at 0·8 p.f. lagging. The resistance and reactance = 145.13kV
of each conductor is 4  and 6  respectively. Determine : ∴ Sending end Line-to Line Voltage
(i) Sending end voltage |𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 145.13 = 251.37kV
Sln
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
251.37−220
= = 14.26%
220
Per phase real power loss in the line
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 R = (787.4)2 x 9 x 10−6 MW = 5.58MW
Per phase receiving end power
300
𝑃𝑅 = x 0.8 = 80MW
3
Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 lagging Per phase sending end power
22000
Receiving end voltage/phase = = 12700V 𝑃𝑆 = (80 + 5.58) = 85.58 MW
√3
Impedance/phase 𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 4 + j6
𝑘𝑊 𝑥 103 5000 𝑥 103
Transmission line efficiency
Line current, I = = = 164A 𝑃 80
3𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅 3 𝑥 12700 𝑥 0.8 η= 𝑅 = = 93.47%
𝑃𝑠 85.58
As Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 12700V b)300MVA at 0.8 pf leading at 220kV
𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) Sln
= 164 ( 0.8 – j0.6) = 131.2 – j98.4 √3 x |𝐼𝑅 ||𝑉𝑅 | = 300MVA
But |𝑉𝑅 | = 220kV
Sending end Voltage/phase : ⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑠 =𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍 |𝐼𝑅 | = 787.4 Amp
= 12700 + (131.2 – j98.4)(4+ j4) Load is at 0.8 p.f leading. For leading p.f load, equation can
= 12700 + 524.8 + j787.2 – j393.6+ 590.4 be written as:
= 13815.2 + j393.6 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 − 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
Magnitude of 𝑉𝑠 |𝑉𝑠 |= 127000 + 787.4(9𝑥0.8 − 26.39𝑥0.6)
𝑉𝑠 = √( 13815.2)2 + (393.6)2 = 13820.8V = 120.2kV
Line value of 𝑉𝑠 = √3 x 13820.8 = 23938V = 23.938kV ∴ Sending end Line-to Line Voltage
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 120.2 = 208.2kV
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
ii)% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
13820.8−12700 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
= 𝑥 100 = 8.825% % Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
12700 𝑉𝑅
208.2−220
= = - 5.36%
220
iii) Transmission efficiency. Per phase real power loss in the line
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 R = (787.4)2 x 9 x 10−6 MW = 5.58MW
Line losses = 3𝐼 2 𝑅 =3 (164)2 x 4 = 322752W Per phase receiving end power
= 322.752kW 300
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑅 = x 0.8 = 80MW
Hence, Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100 3
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 Per phase sending end power
5000
= 𝑥 100 = 93.94% 𝑃𝑆 = (80 + 5.58) = 85.58 MW
5000+322.752
Example Transmission line efficiency
𝑃 80
A 22okV, 3-phase transmission line is 60kk long. The η= 𝑅 = = 93.47%
𝑃𝑠 85.58
resistance is 0.15Ω/km and the inductance 1.4mH/km. Use
the short line model to find the voltage and power at the
sensding end and voltage regulation and efficiency when
Example
the line is supplying a three phase load of:
What is the maximum length in km for a 1-phase
a)300MVA at 0.8 pf lagging at 220kV
transmission line having copper conductor of 0·775 cm2
Sln
cross-section over which 200 kW at unity power factor and
R = 0.15 x 60 = 9Ω
at 3300V are to be delivered ? The efficiecny of
X = 2𝜋 x50 x 1.4 x 10−3 x 60 = 26.39Ω
220𝑘<0 transmission is 90%. Take specific resistance as 1.725  
Receiving end voltage per phase 𝑉𝑅 = = 127<00 cm.
√3
The three phase apparent power is 300MVA at 0.8pf lagging.
∅ = 36.870 Sln
S = 300<−36.870 = (240 + j180)MVA Receiving end power = 200kW = 200000W
The current per phase is given by: Transmission efficiency = 0.9
300<−36.870 200000
𝐼𝑅 = x 103 = Amp Sending end power factor = = 222222W
3𝑥127<00 0.9
𝐼𝑅 =787.4<−36.870 Amp Line losses = 222222 – 200000 = 22222W
40 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Line current , I =
200 𝑥 103
= 60.6A Line losses = 3𝐼 2 𝑅 =3 (81.36)2 x 5.31 =105.447kW
3300 𝑥 1 Output power = 3600kW
Let RΩ be the resistance of one conductor. Input power = output power + line lossess
Line losses = 2𝐼 2 R = 3600 + 105.447kW = 3705.447kW
22.222 = 2(60.6)2 x R 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
22222 Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
2 = 3.025Ω
R= 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
2 𝑥 (60.6) 3600
𝜌𝑙 = 𝑥 100= 97.15%
R= 3600+105 .447
𝐴
𝑅𝐴 3.025 𝑥 0.775
l= = = 1.36 𝑥 106 𝑐𝑚 = 13.6km Example
𝜌 1.725 𝑥 10−6
A short 3- transmission line with an impedance of (6 + j
Example 8)  per phase has sending and receiving end voltages of
Estimate the distance over which a load of 15000 kW at a 120 kV and 110 kV respectively for some receiving end
p.f. 0·8 lagging can be delivered by a 3-phase transmission load at a p.f. of 0·9 lagging. Determine
line having conductors each of resistance 1  per (i) power output
kilometre. The voltage at the receiving end is to be 132 kV
and the loss in the transmission is to be 5%. Resistance of each conductor, R = 6 
Sln Reactance of each conductor, X L = 8 
15000 𝑥 103
Line current, I =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
= = 82A Load power factor, cos R = 0·9 lagging
√3 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑝.𝑓 √3 𝑥 132000 𝑥 0.8
110 𝑥 103
Line losses = 5% x power delivered = 750kW Receiving end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑅 =
200 𝑥 103 √3
Line current , I = = 60.6A = 63508V
3300 𝑥 1
Let RΩ be the resistance of one conductor. 120 𝑥 103
Sending end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑠 = =69282V
Line losses = 3𝐼 2 R √3

750000 = 3(82)2 x R Let I be the load current. Using approximate expression for
750 𝑥 103 𝑉𝑠 , we get:
R= = 37.18Ω 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
3 𝑥 (82)2
Resistance of each conductor per km is given as 1Ω 69282= 63508 + 𝐼 𝑥 6 𝑥 0.9 + 𝐼 𝑥8 𝑥 0.435
Length of line 37.18 x 1 = 37.18km 8.88I = 5774
5774
I= = 650.2 A
8.88
𝑉𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 3𝑥63508 𝑥 650.2 𝑥 0.9
Example Power output = kW =
1000 1000
A 3-phase line delivers 3600 kW at a p.f. 0·8 lagging to a = 111490 kW
load. The resistance and reactance of each conductor are
5·31  and 5·54  respectively. (ii) sending end power factor.
If the sending end voltage is 33 kV, determine : Sln
i)the receiving end voltage 𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅 63508 𝑥 0.9 𝑥 650.2 𝑥 6
𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑅 kW =
ii)line current 𝑉𝑠 69282
iii) transmission efficiency. = 0.88 lag
Sln Example
Resistance of each conductor, R = 5.31  An 11 kV, 3-phase transmission line has a resistance of 1·5
Reactance of each conductor, X L = 5.54   and reactance of 4  per phase. Calculate the
Load power factor, cos R = 0·8 lagging percentage regulation and efficiency of the line when a
total load of 5000 kVA at 0.8 lagging power factor is
33 𝑥 103
Sending end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑠 = = 19052V supplied at 11 kV at the distant end.
√3
Let 𝑉𝑅 be the phase voltage at the receiving end. Sln
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 Resistance of each conductor, R = 1·5 
Line current I =
𝑉𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅
Reactance of each conductor, XL = 4 
1200 𝑥 103 1200 𝑥 103
= = 110𝑥 103
𝑉𝑅 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑉𝑅 𝑥 0.8 Receiving end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑅 = = 6351V
150 𝑥 105 √3
= Line current I =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑥 1000
𝑉𝑅
3 𝑥 𝑉𝑅
5000 𝑥 1000
. Using approximate expression for 𝑉𝑠 , we get: = = 262.43 A
3 𝑥 6351
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 . Using approximate expression for 𝑉𝑠 , we get:
15 𝑥 105 150 𝑥 105 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
19052=𝑉𝑅 + 𝑥 5.31 + 𝑥 5.54 𝑥0.6 = 6351 + 262.43 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 0.8 + 262.43 x 4 x 0.6
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑅 2 - 19052𝑉𝑅 + 11358000 = 0 = 7295.8v
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡: % Voltage regulation = 𝑠 𝑅 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑅 = 18435V 7295.5−6351
= 𝑥 100 = 14.88%
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = √3 x 18435 = 31.93kV 6351`
15 𝑥 105 15 𝑥 105
Line current =
𝑉𝑅
=
18435
= 81.36A Line losses = 3𝐼 2 𝑅 =3 (262.43)2 x 1.5 = 310kW
Output power = 5000 x 0.8 = 4000kW
41 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Input power = output power + line lossess i)There is a considerable error (about 10%) in calculations
= 4000 + 310 = 4310kW because the distributed capacitance has been assumed to
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 lumped or concentrated
Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
4000 ii) This method overestimates the effects of line capacitance
=𝑥 100= 92.8%
4310
Example The figure below shows one single phase of a 3-phase
A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 16 km long overhead line supplies 1000 transmission line
kW at 11k V, 0·8 p.f. lagging. The line resistance is 0·03 
per phase per km and line inductance is 0·7 mH per phase
per km. Calculate the sending end voltage, voltage
regulation and efficiency of transmission
Sln
Resistance of each conductor, R =0.03 x16 = 0.48 
Reactance of each conductor, XL = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑥16
= 2 x 𝜋𝑥50𝑥0.7 𝑥10−3 𝑥 16 = 3.52
11𝑥 103
Receiving end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑅 = = 6351V
√3
Load power factor = 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 = 0.8
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑥 1000
Line current I = Let R = resistance per phase
3 𝑥 𝑉𝑅
1000 𝑥 1000 1000 𝑥 1000 C = capacitance per phase
= = = 65.6A
3 𝑥 𝑉𝑅 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 3 𝑥 6351𝑥 0.8 𝐼𝑅 = Load current per phase
. Using approximate expression for 𝑉𝑠 , we get: 𝑋𝐿 = Inductive reactance per phase
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = Receiving end power factor (lagging)
= 6351 + 65.6 𝑥 0.48 𝑥 0.8 + 3.52 x 0.6= 6515V
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
6515−6351
= 𝑥 100 = 2.58%
6351`

Line losses = 3𝐼 2 𝑅 =3 (65.6)2 x 0.48 = 6.2kW

Output power = 5000 x 0.8 = 4000kW
Input power = output power + line lossess
= 1000 + 6.2 = 1006.2kW
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
1000
= 𝑥 100= 99.38%
1006.2

Example
A medium ,single phase transmission line 100km long has
MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINE
Length – Upto about 50 – 150 km length the following constants:
Resistance/km = 0.25Ω
Line voltage – is moderately high (>20kV but less than <
Reactance /km = 0.8Ω
100kV)
Due to sufficient length and voltage of line, the capacitance Susceptance /km = 14 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Ω
effects that is uniformly distributed over the entire length of Receiving end line voltage = 66000V
the line are taken into account. The line is delivering 15000kW at 0.8 power factor lagging.
For purpose of calculations, the distributed capacitance of the Assuming that the total capacitance of line is localized at
line is divided and lumped (localized) in the form of the receiving end alone, determine:
condensers shunted across the line at one or more points. The i)The sending end current
most commonly used localized capacitance methods are; ii)The sending end voltage
i)End condenser method iii)Regulation
ii ) Nominal T method iv)Supply power factor
iii ) Nominal π method. v)Draw the phasor diagram to illustrate your calculations

End Condenser Method Sln:

It is a method where capacitance of the line is lumped or Total resistance R = 0.25 x 100 = 25 Ω
concentrated at the receiving or load End. Total reactance 𝑋𝐶 = 0.8 x 100 = 80 Ω
This method of localizing the line capacitance at the load end Total susceptance Y = 14 x 10−6 S x 100
overestimate the effects of capacitance. =14 x 10−4 Ω
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 66000 𝑉
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Load current: 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓
Limitations 15000 𝑥 10 3
= = 284 𝐴
66000 𝑥 0.8
42 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
 Determine:
𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.6
i)Sending end Current (5mks)
𝑉𝑅
And the 𝐼𝐶̅ = 1 = jY x 𝑉𝑅 ii)Sending end power factor (3mks)
𝑌
−4
= j 14 x 14 𝑥 10 x 66000 = j 92 Ω iii)Transmission efficiency (2mks)
And 𝐼𝑅̅ = 𝐼𝑅 ( 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 − j𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 )
= (284(0.8 – j0.6) = 227 – j170 Sln
Total resistance/phase R = 0.1 x 100 = 10Ω
Therefore: Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 0.2 𝑥 100 = 20Ω
i)Sending end current = 𝐼𝑆̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶̅ Capacitive susceptance Y= 0.04 x 10−4 x 100
= (227 – j 170) + j 92 =04 x 10−4
= 227 – j78 Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 =
66000
= 38105 𝑉
√3
Magnitude of current 𝐼𝑠 = √2272 + 782 = 240 A 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Load current: 𝐼𝑅 =
√3 𝑥𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓
ii)Voltage drop = 𝐼𝑠 𝑍 = 𝐼𝑠 (𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 ) 10000 𝑥 103
= (227 – j78) (25 + j80) = = 109 𝐴
√3 𝑥6000 𝑥 0.8
= 5675 + j18160 –j1950 + 6240
= 11915 + j16210 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.6
Sending end Voltage
𝑉̅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 = 38105 𝑉
𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐶̅ 𝑍 = 66000 + 11915 + j16210
And 𝐼𝑅̅ = 𝐼𝑅 ( 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 − j𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 )
= 77915 + j16210
= (109(0.8 – j0.6) = 87.2 – j65.4
Magnitude of 𝑉𝑠 = √779152 + 162102 = 79583 V Voltage across 𝐶1 :
𝑍̅
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅 And 𝑉̅1 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝑅̅
iii)% voltage regulation = x 100 2
𝑉𝑅 (10+𝑗20)
79583−66000 =38105 + (87.2 – j65.4)( )
= 𝑥 100 = 20.58 % 2
66000 = 38105 +436 –j327 +654
iv)Phase angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝐼𝑅̅ is , = 39195 + j545
−78
𝜃1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 -0.3436 = −18.960 Charging current 𝐼𝑐 :
227
𝑉
Phase angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝑉̅𝑆 is And the 𝐼𝐶̅ = 11 = jY x 𝑉1
16210 𝑌
𝜃2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.2036 = 11.500 = j 4 x 𝑥 10−4 (39195+j545)
77915
Supply power factor angle ∅𝑠 = 18.96 + 11.50 = - 0.218 + j15.6
= 30.460
Power factor = Cos 30 . 46 = 0.86 lag Therefore:
i)Sending end current = 𝐼𝑆̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶̅
= (87.2 – j65.4) + (-0.218 + j15.6)
NORMINAL T METHOD = (87.0 – j 49.8)
In this method, trhe whole capacitance is assumed = 100< -𝟐𝟗𝟎 𝟒𝟕′
concentrated at the middle point of the line and half the line Magnitude of sending end current = 100A
resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side
-Therefore, the full charging current flows over a half the line. ii)Sending end Voltage
One phase of 3-phase transmission line is shown below. 𝑍̅
𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝑠̅ = (39195 +j545)=(87-j49.8)(5+j10)
2
= 39195 + j545 + 434.9 + j870 – j249 + 498
= 40128 + j1170 or 40145< 10 40′
Line value of sending end voltage
= 40145 x √3 = 69533 V

Note:
Sending end power factor angle is simply the sum of the angle
at sending voltage and sending current
= 𝟐𝟗𝟎 𝟒𝟕′ + 10 40
=310 27′
Example Pf = Cos 310 27′ = 0.853 lagging
A three phase, 50Hz overhead transmission line 100km
long has the following constants: iii)Sending end power = 3 𝑉̅𝑆 𝐼𝑆̅ Cos ∅𝑠
= 3 x 40145 x 100 x 0.853
Resistance/km/phase = 0.1 Ω
= 10273.105kW
Inductive reactance/km/phase = 0.2Ω 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Susceptance /km/phase = 0.04 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Siemen Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
10000
The line supplies a balanced load of 10000 kW at 66kV, p.f = 𝑥 100 = 97.34 %
10273.105
0.8 lagging. Using Norminal T method
43 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Example
A 3-phase, 50 Hz transmission line 100 km long delivers 20 NOMINAL 𝛑 METHOD
MW at 0·9 p.f. lagging and at 110 kV. The resistance and In this method, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line to
reactance of the line per phase per km are 0·2  and 0·4 neutral) is divided into two halves; one half being lumped at the
 respectively, while capacitance admittance is 2·5  10 6 sending end and the other half at the receiving end as shown
siemen/km/phase. Calculate : (i) the current and voltage at in Fig. 10.16. It is obvious that capacitance at the sending end
the sending end (ii) efficiency of transmission. Use nominal has no effect on the line drop. However, its charging current
T method must be added to line current in order to obtain the total
Sln sending end current.
Total resistance/phase R = 0.2 x 100 = 20Ω
Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 0.4 𝑥 100 = 40Ω
Capacitive susceptance Y= 2.5 x 10−6 x 100
= 2.5 x 10−6 S
Phase impedance 𝑍 = 20 + j40

Let R = resistance per phase

C = capacitance per phase
𝐼𝑅 = Load current per phase
110000 𝑋𝐿 = Inductive reactance per phase
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = = 63508 𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = Receiving end power factor (lagging)
√3
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Load current: 𝐼𝑅 = VS = Sending end voltage per phase
√3 𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓
3
20 𝑥 10
= = 116.6 𝐴 The phasor diagram is as shown below
√3 𝑥 110 𝑥 0.9

𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.9 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.435

𝑉̅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗0 = 63508 𝑉
And 𝐼𝑅̅ = 𝐼𝑅 ( 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 − j𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 )
= 116.6(0.9 – j0.435) = 105 – j50.7
Voltage across 𝐶1 :
𝑍̅ Taking receiving end voltage as reference line, we have:
And 𝑉̅1 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝑅̅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0
(20+𝑗40)
=63508 + (105 – j50.7)( ) 𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
2
= 63508 + (2064 + j1593) Charging current at load end is
𝐶
= 65572 + j1593 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = j𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉
𝐼𝐶1 = j𝜔 ( )𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅
2 𝑅
Charging current 𝐼𝑐 : Hence
𝑉
And the 𝐼𝐶̅ = 11 = jY x 𝑉1 Line current 𝐼𝐿̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶1̅
𝑌
= j 2.5 x 𝑥 10−4 (65572+j1593) Sending end voltage: 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ 𝑍 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ (𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋̅𝐿 )
̅
= - 0.4 + j16.4
Therefore: Charging current at the sending end is:
𝐶
Sending end current = 𝐼𝑆̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶̅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = j𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉
𝐼𝐶2 = j𝜔 ( )𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗𝑠
2 𝑠
= (105 – j50.7) + (-0.4 + j16.4) Hence:
= (104.6 – j 34.3) = 110< -𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟗′A Sending end current : 𝐼𝑠̅ = 𝐼𝐿̅ +𝐼𝐶2
̅
Magnitude of sending end current = 110A

Sending end Voltage Example

𝑍̅
𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝑠̅ = (65572 +j1593)+ (104.6-j43.3)(10+j20) A 3-phase, 50Hz, 150 km line has a resistance, inductive
2
= 67304 + j3342 reactance and capacitive shunt admittance of 0·1 , 0·5 
Magnitude of 𝑉̅𝑆 = √(67304)2 + (3342)2 = 67387V and 3  106 S per km per phase. If the line delivers 50 MW
Line value of sending end voltage at 110 kV and 0·8 p.f. lagging, determine the sending end
= 67387 x √3 = 116717 V voltage and current. Assume a nominal  circuit for the
line.
ii)Total line losses for the three phases Sln
𝑅 𝑅
iii)Sending end power = 3𝐼𝑆 2 + 3𝐼𝑅 2
2 2
20 20
= 3 𝑥 (110)2 ( ) + 3 𝑥 (116.6)2 ( ) = 0.770MW
2 2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
20
= 𝑥 100 = 96.29 %
20+0.770
44 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Total resistance/phase R = 0.1 x 150 = 15Ω Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 0.5 𝑥 100 = 50Ω
Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 0.5 𝑥 150 = 75Ω Susceptance/phase Y= 10 x 10−6 x 100
Capacitive admittance/phase Y= 3 x 10−6 x 150 =10 x 10−4 S
=45 x 10−6 S Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 =
66 𝑥 103
= 38105 𝑉
110 𝑥 103 √3
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = = 63508 𝑉 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
√3 Load current: 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 √3 𝑥𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓
Load current: 𝐼𝑅 = 20 𝑥 106
√3 𝑥𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓 = = 195𝐴
50 𝑥 106 √3 𝑥 66000 𝑥 0.9
= = 328𝐴
√3 𝑥 110000 𝑥 0.8
𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.9 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.435
𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.6 𝑉̅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗0 = 38105𝑉
𝑉̅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗0 = 63508 𝑉 And 𝐼𝑅̅ = 𝐼𝑅 ( 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 − j𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 )
And 𝐼𝑅̅ = 𝐼𝑅 ( 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 − j𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 ) = 195(0.9 – j0.435) = 176 – j85
= 328(0.8 – j0.6) = 262.4 – j196.8 Charging current at the load end is:
Charging current at the load end is: ̅ = 𝑉̅𝑅 𝑗 𝑌
And 𝐼𝐶1
2
̅ = 𝑉̅𝑅 𝑗 𝑌
And 𝐼𝐶1 (10 𝑥 10−4 )
2 =38105 x j( )= j19
(45 𝑥 10−5 ) 2
=63508 x j( )= j14.3 Line current 𝐼𝐿̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶1
̅
2
Line current 𝐼𝐿̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶1
̅ = (176 – j85) +j19
= (262.4 – j196.8) +j14.3 = 176 – j66
= 262.4 – j182.5 Sending end voltage: 𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ 𝑍 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ (𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋̅𝐿 )
Sending end voltage: 𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ 𝑍 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ (𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋̅𝐿 ) = 38105 + (176 – j66)(10+j50)
= 63508 + (262.4 _ j182.5)(15+j75) = 38105 + (5060 +j8140)
= 63508 + 3936 + j19680 –j2737.5 +13687 = 43165 + j8140
= 81131 + j16942.5 = 43925 < 10.650 𝑉
= 82881 < 110 47′𝑉 Line value of sending end voltage
Line value of sending end voltage = 43925 x √3 = 76k V
= 82881 x √3 = 143.55k V
Charging current 𝐼𝑐2 at the sending end
̅ = 𝑉̅𝑠 𝑗 𝑌
And 𝐼𝐶2
2
Charging current 𝐼𝑐2 at the sending end (10𝑥 10−4 )
̅ = 𝑉̅𝑠 𝑗 𝑌
And 𝐼𝐶2 =(43165+ j8140) x j( )
2
2
(45 𝑥 10−5 ) =- 4.0 + j21.6
=(81131+ j16942) x j( ) Sending end current 𝐼𝑠̅ = 𝐼𝐿̅ +𝐼𝐶2
̅
2
=-3.81+ j14.3 = (176 – j66) +(-4.0 + j21.6)
Sending end current 𝐼𝑠̅ = 𝐼𝐿̅ +𝐼𝐶2
̅ = 172 – j44.4
= (262.4 – j182.5) +(-3.81 + j18.25) = 177.6 < −14.50 𝐴
= 258.6 – j164.25 Sending end current = 306.4 A
= 306.4 < −32.40 𝐴
Sending end current = 306.4 A

Example
A 100-km long, 3-phase, 50-Hz transmission line has
following line constants:
Resistance/phase/km = 0·1 
Reactance/phase/km = 0·5 
Susceptance/phase/km = 10  10 6 S Referring to phasor diagram:
If the line supplies load of 20 MW at 0·9 p.f. lagging at 66 𝜃1 Angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝑉̅𝑠 = 10.650 
kV at the receiving end, calculate by nominal  method : 𝜃2 Angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝐼𝑠̅ = −14.50 
i)sending end power factor
i i ) regulation ∅𝑠 Angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝐼𝑠̅ = 𝜃2 𝜃1 
iii)transmission efficiency 14.50 10.650 25.150 
Sln Sending end Pf , Cos ∅𝑠 = Cos25.150 = 0.905Lag
𝑉 −𝑉
ii)% voltage regulation = 𝑆 𝑅 x 100
𝑉𝑅
43925 −38105
= 𝑥 100 = 15.27 %
38105

iii)Sending end power = 3𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑠 

= 3 x 43925 x 177.6 x 0.905 = 21.18MW
20
= 𝑥100 = 94%
Total resistance/phase R = 0.1 x 100 = 10Ω 21.18

45 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

 Hence
ABCD CONSTANTS 𝒁𝒀
A = (𝟏 + ) , B=Z
It is convenient to represent a transmission line by the two 𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝒁𝒀
port –network, wherein the sending-end voltage 𝐕𝐬 and C = (𝟏 + ) and D = (𝟏 + )
𝟒 𝟐
Currents 𝐈𝐬 are related to receiving end voltage 𝐕𝐑 and current
IR through A, B, C and D parameters as: Example
𝑽𝒔 = A𝑽𝑹 + B𝑰𝑹 Volts A 60Hz, 250km long transmission line has an impedance of
𝑰𝒔 = C𝑽𝑹 + D𝑰𝑹 Amps (33 + j104) ohm and a total shunt admittance of 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 mho.
In matrix form: The receiving end load is 50MW at 208kV with 0.80 power
𝑽 𝑨 𝑩 𝑽𝑹 factor lagging. Find the sending –end voltage, current,
| 𝒔| = | || |
𝑰𝒔 𝑪 𝑫 𝑰𝑹 power and power factor using:
a)Short line approximation
A,B,C and D are the parameters that depends on the Sln
transmission –line constants R,L,C and G. The ABCD Z = (33 + j104) = 109.11<72.40 ohm
parameters are, in general,complex numbers. A and D are Y = j10−3 mho
dimensionless. B and C have units of Ohms and Siemens Receiving end load is 50MW at 208kV, 0.80 Lagging power
respectively. factor.
Also the following identity holds for ABCD constants: 50
𝐼𝑅 = < −36.870 = 0.173 < −36.870
AD – BC = 1 √3𝑥 208 𝑥 0.8
208
𝑉𝑅 = < 00 = 120.08 < 00
√3
To avoid confusion between total series impedance and series Short line approximation
impudence per unit length, the following notation is used. 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + IZ
z = 𝜸 + j𝝎L Ω/m, Series impedence per unit length = 120.08 < 00 + (0.173 < −36.870 )(109.11 < 72.40 )
y = G + j𝝎C S/m, Shunt admittance per unit length 𝑉𝑠 = 135.87 < 4.62𝑘𝑉 0
Z = zl, Total series impedance |𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 135.87< 4.620 kV
Y = yl S, total shunt admittance
= 235.3< 4.620 kV
L = line length, m
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑅 = 0.173 < −36.870 𝑘𝐴
Sending end power factor = Cos (36.87 + 4.62) = 0.75
Note that the shunt conductors G is usually neglected for
overhead transmission systems 𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 235.33 x 0.173 x 0.75 = 52.88MW

The sending end voltage and current for the nominal 𝜋 model b)Nominal 𝝅 method
𝑍𝑌 𝑗 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 109.11<72.40
are obtained as follows: A =D = (1 + ) = 1 +
2 2
= 0.9481< 10
B = Z = 109.11 <72.40
𝑍𝑌
C = (1 + ) = j x 10−3
4
𝑽𝒔 = A𝑽𝑹 + B𝑰𝑹
= 0.9481< 10 x 120.08< 00 + 109.11< 72.4 x 0.173<
−36.870
= 129.817< 5.720 kV
From KCL, the current in series impedance designated by 𝐼𝐿 |𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 129.817< 5.720 kV = 224.85< 5.720 kV
is
𝑌
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 ……… Eqtn (i) 𝐼𝑠 = C𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 Amps
2
From KVI, the sending end voltage is 𝐼𝑠 =jx 10−3 x 120.08< 00 + 0.9481< 10 x 0.173< −36.870
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑅 + Z𝐼𝐿 ……….. Eqtn (ii) 𝐼𝑠 = 0.135< 10.230 kA
From Eqtn (i) and (ii)
𝑍𝑌 Power factor (pf) angle at the sending end
𝑉𝑠 = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 …..(iii)
2 = 10.230 – ( 5.720 ) = 4.510
The sending end Current is:
𝑌 Sending end pf = Cos 4.510 = 0.997
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝑉𝑠 …… (iv) Sending end power
2
From equation (iii) and (iv) 𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 224.85 x 0.135 x 0.997 = 52.4MW
We get
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑠 =Y (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 +(1 + ) 𝐼𝑅 c)Exact transmission line equation
4 2
Equation (iii) and (v) can be written in matrix form as : Sln
𝑽 𝑨 𝑩 𝑽𝑹 𝛾𝑙 = √𝑧𝑦 l = √𝑧𝑙 . 𝑦𝑙 = √𝑍𝑌
| 𝒔| = | || |
𝑰𝒔 𝑪 𝑫 𝑰𝑹 √𝑍𝑌 = √(𝑗𝑥 10−3 𝑥 109.11 < 72.40
= 330.31 < −8.80
𝒁𝒀
𝑽 (𝟏 + ) 𝒁 𝑽𝑹
𝟐
| 𝒔| = | || | A = D = Cosh (𝛾𝑙) = Cosh (√𝑍𝑌)
𝑰𝒔 𝒁𝒀
𝒀 (𝟏 + ) 𝒀 (𝟏 +
𝒁𝒀
) 𝑰𝑹
𝟒 𝟐 = 0.9481< 10

46 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Sinh (𝛾𝑙) ≈ Sinh (√𝑍𝑌) (1 + ) = 0.33< 81.20
𝑍𝑌 𝐼𝑠 = 4.094< 10−4 < 90.150 x 76.21< 00 +
6 (1−0.0124+𝑗0.0053) + 437.38<−36.870
B = 𝑍𝑐 Sinh (𝛾𝑙) = 330.31< −8.80 x 0.33< −8120 1000
B = 109< 72.40 = (0.0311< 90.150 + 0.432< −36.650 ) kA
Sinh (𝛾𝑙) 0.33<81.20 = 414< −33.060 Amp
C= = ≈ j x 10−3
𝒁𝑪 330.31<−8.80 Power factor (pf) angle at the sending end
= 8.180 – (−33.060 ) = 41.240
𝑽𝒔 = A𝑽𝑹 + B𝑰𝑹 Sending end pf = Cos 41.240 = 0.752
= 0.9481< 10 x 120.08< 00 + 109< 72.4 x 0.173<
−36.870 Example
= 129.817< 5.720 kV A 3-phase, 150km long, 50Hz transmission line delivering
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 129.806.< 5.72 kV = 224.83< 5.720 kV 20MW at a power factor of 0.8 lagging and 66kV to
balanced load. Resistance of line is 0.075Ω/km, 1.5 cm
𝐼𝑠 = C𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 Amps outside diameter, spaced equilaterally 2metrs between
𝐼𝑠 =jx 10−3 x 120.08< 00 + 0.9481< 10 x 0.173< −36.870 centrs. Use Norminal 𝝅, to determine:
𝐼𝑠 = 0.135< 10.230 kA
a)Voltage regulation
Power factor (pf) angle at the sending end sln
= 10.230 – ( 5.720 ) = 4.510 R = 0.075 x 150 = 11.25Ω
Sending end pf = Cos 4.510 = 0.997 Diameter of the conductor = 1.5
Sending end power 1.5
Radius r = = 0.75 cm
2
𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 224.85 x 0.135 x 0.997 = 52.4MW Space between them d = 2m = 200cm
Example 𝒅
A three phase transmission line 160km long delivering a Inductance per unit length L = 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒍𝒏 Henry
𝒓
3
load of 100MVA at 0.8 pf lagging and 132kV to a balanced D equivalent = √𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3
load. Resistance per km is 0.16Ω, inductance per km is 3
D equivalent = √2 𝑥 2 𝑥2 = 2
1.2mH and capacitance per km per conductor is 0.0082
𝝁𝑭. Use nominal 𝝅 method to Determine for the sending 200
L = 2𝑥10−7 (150 𝑥1000)𝑙𝑛 = 0.1675 Henry
end: 0.75
a)Voltage
b)Current The Capacitance per phase
2𝜋𝜀
c)Power factor C per unit length = 𝑑 F/m
𝑙𝑛
R = 0.16 x 160 = 25.6Ω 𝑟
2𝜋𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10 −12
X = 1.2 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 x 2𝜋 x50 x 160 = 60.3Ω = (200) 𝑥 (150 𝑥 1000)
Y = j2𝜋 x 50 x 0.0082 x 10−6 x 160 = j4.12 x 10−4 mho 𝑙𝑛
(0.75)
Z = R + jX = 25.6 + j60.3 = 65.51<67.00 Ω = 1.49𝜇F
From Y = j𝜔C = j2𝜋 x 50 x 1.49 x 10−6 mho
𝑍𝑌
𝑉𝑠 = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 Y =j 468.1 x 10−6 mho
2
𝑌 𝑗 468.1 𝑥 10−6
Phase voltage at the receiving end. = = j 234 x 10−6 mho
132 2 2
𝑉𝑅 = < 00 = 76.21 < 00 Z = (11.25 + j52.62) = 53.809< 77.90 Ω
√3
Receiving end current: Now
100 𝑥 106 𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 𝐼𝑅 x 66000 x 0.8 = 20000000
𝐼𝑅 = Amp = 437.38 Amp
√3 𝑥 132 𝑥 103
𝐼𝑅 = 218.7 Amp at 0.8 pf lagging
Load has pf of 0.8, ∅𝑅 = 36.870
Receiving end phase voltage
𝐼𝑅 = 437.38 < −36.870 Amp 66
𝑍𝑌 (65.51<67.00 )(4.12 𝑥 10−4 ) 𝑉𝑅 = = 38.104 kV
= = (-0.0124 + j0.0053) √3
2 2
From
𝑽𝒔 = (1-0.0124+j0.0053) x 76.2< 00 + 𝑍𝑌
65.51<670 x 437.38<−36.870 𝑉𝑠 = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅
2
1000 Phase voltage at the receiving end.
= 101.07< 8.180 kV 132
Sending end line to line Voltage 𝑉𝑅 = < 00 = 38.104 < 00
√3
Receiving end current:
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 101.07< 8.180 kV = 175.05< 8.180 kV 𝐼𝑅 = 218.7 < −36.870 Amp
𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑠 =Y (1 +
𝑍𝑌
) 𝑉𝑅 +(1 +
𝑍𝑌
) 𝐼𝑅 =(53.809 𝑥 234 𝑥 10−6 < 77.9 + 900
4 2 2
𝑍𝑌 = (53.809 𝑥 234 𝑥 10−6 < 77.9 + 900
= 0.00675< 1570
4
𝑍𝑌
= 0.01259 < 167.90 = -0.0123 +j0.00264
1+ = 0.9938< 0.150 𝑉𝑠 = (1-0.0123+j0.00264) x 38.104< 00 +
4
𝑍𝑌 53.809<77.90 x 218.7<−36.870
Y (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 = 4.12 x 10−4 x 0.9938 < 90.150 1000
4
= 4.094 x 10−4 < 90.150 𝑉𝑠 = 37.63 + j0.1 + 8.87 + j7.72 = 46.5 + j7.82
𝑉𝑠 = 47.15< 9.540 kV
47 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Sending end line to line Voltage Sln
𝐼𝑠 = C𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 Amps
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 47.15< 9.540 kV = 81.66< 9.540 kV 𝐼𝑠 =j4.44x 10−4 x 71.6< 00 x 1000 + 0.986< 0.320 x
279.36< −36.870
𝑉𝑠
𝐴
− 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑠 =221.28 – j132.24
% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100 = 257.78< −30.860 Amp
𝑉𝑅
81.66
−66
0.9877
= x 100 = 25.26% Power factor (pf) angle at the sending end
66
= 7.120 – (−30.860 ) = 37.980
b)Efficiency of the Line Sending end pf = Cos 37.980 = 0.788
Power loss per phase = 𝐼 2 R
= 𝐼 2 R = 218.72 x 11.25 x 10−6 MW = 0.538MW d)Regulation
20𝑀𝑊 𝑉 −𝑉
Per phase receiving end power 𝑃𝑅 =
3
% Voltage regulation = 𝑠 𝑅 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
20𝑀𝑊 𝑉𝑠
Per phase sendin end power 𝑃𝑠 = + 0.538 = 7.204MW 𝐴
−124
3 = x 100 = 24.43%
124
20
η= 3
𝑥 100 = 92.54% e)Efficiency of the Line
7.204
Sending end power
Example 𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 152.14 x 257.78 x Cos (37.980 ) = 53.52MW
A long transmission line delivers a load of 60MVA at Receiving end power
124kV, 50HZ, at 0.8 power factor lagging. Resistance of 𝑃𝑅 = 60 x 0.80 = 48MW
48
the line is 25.3Ω reactance is 66.5Ω and Admittance due to η= 𝑥 100 = 89.69%
53.52
charging capacitance is 0.442 x 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟑 mho. Find:
a)A,B,C,D constants
Sln FERRANTI EFFECT
R = 25.3 Ohm, X = 66.5 ohm, Z = (25.3 + j66.5) ohm This is a phenomenon where the receiving end voltage is
Y = j 0.442 x 10−3 mho greater than sending end voltage during light load or No-
𝛾𝑙 = √𝑧𝑦 l = √𝑧𝑙 . 𝑦𝑙 = √𝑍𝑌 load due very high line charging current
√𝑍𝑌 = √(25.3 + 𝑗66.5)(𝑗 0.442 𝑥 10−3 A charged open circuit line draws significant amount of
= (o,0327 + j0.174) current due to capacitive effect of the line. This is more in
A = D = Cosh (𝛾𝑙) = Cosh (√𝑍𝑌) high –voltage long line transmission. Under no Load, 𝐼𝑅 = 0
= Cosh (0.03217 + j0.174) Thus 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 Cosh (𝛾𝑙)
𝑉𝑠
= 0.986< 0.320 𝑉𝑅 =
Cosh (𝛾𝑙)
Now: Cosh (𝛾𝑙)≤ 1 and therefore 𝑉𝑅 is always greater or
𝑍 equal to 𝑉𝑠
B = 𝑍𝑐 Sinh (𝛾𝑙) = (√ )Sinh (√𝑍𝑌)
𝑌

𝑍
(√ ) = (393 – j72.3) MORE EXAMPLES
𝑌
Example
B = 70.3< 69.2
A three-phase, 50Hz, 100km Long transmission line
𝟏 𝑍
C= Sinh (𝛾𝑙) = (√ )Sinh (√𝑍𝑌) supplies a load of 70MW at 132kV at 0.8 power factor
𝒁𝑪 𝑌
lagging. Each conductor has a resistance, inductance and
= 4.44 x 10 <90 = j4.44 x 10−4
−4 0
capacitance of 0.15 Ω, 1.2mH and 0.0087 𝝁𝑭 per km per
phase respectively. Using the Norminal 𝝅 Method,
Determine the sending end:
b)Sending voltage i)Line voltage (6 marks)
Sln
Load at 60MVA at 124 kV (line to line)
Load current
60 𝑥 1000
𝐼𝑅 = = 279.36 Amp
√3 𝑥 124
Power factor is 0.8 lagging
𝐼𝑅 =787.4<−36.870 Amp
124
𝑉𝑅 = = 71.6 kV (phase voltage)
√3
𝑽𝒔 = A𝑽𝑹 + B𝑰𝑹 Total Resistance/phase R= 0.15 x 100 = 15Ω
70.3<69.20 + 279.36<−36.870
= 0.986< 0.320 x 71.6< 00 + Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑥 100
1000
= 87.84< 7.120 kV = 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 1.2 x 10−3 x 100 = 37.7Ω
1
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 87.84< 7.120 kV = 152.14< 7.120 kV Total capacitance /phase = x 150
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1
= x 100 = 36.58 x 106 Ω
c)Current and Power factor 2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 0.0087 𝑥 10−6

48 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

 132 𝑥 103 𝑉 1
𝑉𝑅 = = 76210.2V = x 150 = 50 x 105 Ω
√3 2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 0.0096 𝑥 10−6
70 𝑥 106 𝑊
Load current 𝐼𝑅 = = 382.71𝐴 132 𝑥 103 𝑉
√3 𝑥 132000 𝑥 0.8
Taking receiving end voltage as the reference phasor, we have 𝑉𝑅 = = 76210.2V
√3
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 30 𝑥 106 𝑊
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 76210.2V Load current 𝐼𝑅 = = 145.8𝐴
√3 𝑥 132000 𝑥 0.9
Load current ⃗⃗⃗𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos ∅𝑅 − 𝑗 Sin ∅𝑅 ) Taking receiving end voltage as the reference phasor, we have
= 382.71(0.8 – j0.6) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 76210.2V
= 306 – j229.8A
Charging current at the load end is: Load current ⃗⃗⃗𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos ∅𝑅 − 𝑗 Sin ∅𝑅 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 76210.2 76210.2 76210.2
= 145.8(0.9 – j0.436)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑅 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗= 6 𝑥 𝑗= 6= j0.004 = 130.5 – j63.22
𝐶1 36.58 𝑥 10 18.29 𝑥 10
2 2 Charging current at the load end is:
Line current ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 76210.2 76210.2 76210.2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑅 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗= 5 𝑥 𝑗= 5 = j0.03
= (306 – j229.8) + j0.004 𝐶1 50 𝑥 10 25 𝑥 10
2 2
= 306 –j229.796
Line current ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1
Sending voltage ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 𝑍 = (130.5 – j63.22) + j0.03
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 (𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 ) = 130.5 –j63.22
= 76210.2 + (306 –j229.796)(15 + j37.7) Sending voltage ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 𝑍
= 76210.2 + (382<-36.9)(40<68.3) ⃗⃗⃗
= 76210.2 + (15280< 31.4) 𝑉𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 (𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 )
= 76210 + (13042.2 +j7961.0) = 76210.2 + (130.5 –j63.22)(22.5 + j56.5)
= 89252.2 +j7961.0 = 76210.2 + (58.8<-116.5)(60.8<68.29)
= 76210.2 + (3575.04< -48.21)
= 89606.5<5.0970 V
= 76210 + (2382.4 –j2665.52)
Line value = 89606.5 x √3 = 155.2kV = 78592.4 – j2665.52
= 78637.6<−1.9420 V
ii)Current (3mks)
Sln
ii)Current (3mks)
Charging current at the sending end is :
Sln
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 89606.5<5.0970
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗 Charging current at the sending end is :
𝐶2
2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 78637.6<−1.9420
89606.5<5.0970 89606.5<5.0970 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗
= 36.58 𝑥 106
𝑥 𝑗= 𝐶2
18.29 𝑥 106 2
2 78637.6<−1.9420 78637.6<−1.9420
= 50 𝑥 105
𝑥 𝑗=
25 𝑥 105
= 0.0049< 5.0970 2

= 0.0049 + j0.00043
= 0.03< −1.9420
Sending end current ⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 = ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶2 = 0.03 – j0.001
= 306 –j229.796 + ( 0.0049 – j0.00043)
Sending end current ⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 = ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶2
= 306.0 – j229.79
= 130.5 –j63.22 + ( 0.03 – j0.001)
= 382.67<−36.90 A = 130.53 – j63.221
= 145<−25.80 A
Example
Example
A three-phase, 50Hz 132kV,150km Long transmission line
A 100km long , 3-phase, 50Hz transmission line has the
supplies a load of 30MW at 0.9 power factor lagging. Each
following line Constants:
conductor has a resistance, inductance and capacitance of
Resistance/phase/km = 0.2Ω
0.15 Ω, 1.2mH and 0.0096 𝝁𝑭 per km per phase
Inductance/phase/km = 2mH
respectively. Using the Norminal 𝝅 Method, Determine the
Capacitance(line to neutral)/per km = 0.015𝝁𝑭
sending end:
If the line supplies a star-connected load of 50MW at
i)Line voltage (6 marks)
13kV, 0.8 power factor lagging, use the Nominal –T-
method to determine the sending end:
i)Current (5mks)
Sln

Total Resistance/phase R= 0.15 x 150 = 22.5Ω

Total resistance/phase R = 0.2 x 100 = 20Ω
Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑥 150
Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑥 100
= 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 1.2 x 10−3 x 150 = 56.56Ω
1 = 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 2 x 10−3 x 100 = 62.84Ω
Total capacitance /phase = x 150 1
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 Total capacitance /phase = x 100
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

49 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

 1 𝑘𝑊 𝑥 103 1000 𝑥 103
= x 100 = 31.8 x 105 Ω Line current, I = = = 65.61A
2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 0.015 𝑥 10−6 3𝑉𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 3 𝑥 6351 𝑥 0.8
As Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6
𝑍 = R +j𝑋𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 6351V
13 𝑥 103 𝑉
𝑉𝑅 = = 7505.55V 𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
√3
50 𝑥 106 𝑊 = 65.61 ( 0.8 – j0.6) = 52.5 – j39.37
Load current 𝐼𝑅 = = 277.6𝐴
√3 𝑥 13000 𝑥 0.8
cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6 Sending end Voltage/phase : ⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑠 =𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍
𝑍 = R +j𝑋𝐿 = 20 + j62.84 = 6351 + (52.5 – j39.37)(0.04+ j0.2357)
= 6351 + 2.1 + j12.37 – j1.575+ 9.28
Taking receiving end voltage as the reference phasor, we have = 6362.38 + j10.795
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 7505.55V Magnitude of 𝑉𝑠
Load current ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos ∅𝑅 − 𝑗 Sin ∅𝑅 ) 𝑉𝑠 = √( 6362.38)2 + (10.795)2 = 6362.39V
= 277.6(0.8 – j0.6) Line value of 𝑉𝑠 = √3 x 6362.39 = 23938V = 11.02kV
= 222.08 – j166.56 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑍 ii)% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
Voltage across C, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ( ) 𝑉𝑅
2 6362.39−6351
= 7505.55 + (222.08 – j166.56)(10 + j31.42) = 𝑥 100 = 0.179%
6351
= 7505.55 + (277.6<-36.87) (32.97<72.34)
= 7505.55 + 9152.5 < 35.47
= 7505.55 + 7453.97 +j5310.98 KNEC O/N 2022
= 14959.52 + j5310.98 A 200km long, three phase, 50Hz transmission line
= 15874.3<19.550 delivers 30MW at apower factor 0.85 lagging to a 66kV
balanced load. The resistance of the line is 0.08 Ω/km. The
Charging current at the load end is:
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 15874.3<19.550
conductor diameter is 2cm equilaterally spaced 3m
⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶 = 1 = 5 𝑥 𝑗 = 499.19< 19.550 between the centres. Using the nominal T method,
𝐶 31.8 𝑥 10
= 470. 4 +j167.0 A determine the
Sending end current 𝐼𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ 𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶 i)Impedence per phase (2mks)
=( 222.08 – j166.56) + (470. 4 +j167.0) Sln
= 692.08 +j 0.44 R = 0.08 x 200 = 16Ω
= 692<0.0360 A

ii)Sending end current

𝑍
⃗⃗⃗𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗
Sending voltage 𝑉 𝑉1 + ⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 ( )
2
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑆 = 15874.3<19.550 + (692<0.0360 A) (32.97<72.34)
= (14959.52 + j5310.98) + (22815.24 <72.376)
= (14959.52 + j5310.98 ) + 6907.75 +j21744.4
= 21867.27 + j27055.38
D equivalent = 3√𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3
= 34787.5<51.050 3
D equivalent = √3 𝑥 3 𝑥3 = 3
Example 𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.7788 xr = 0.7788
𝟐
A three –phase , 50Hz, 20km long overhead transmission r = = 1cm, d = 3m = 300cm
𝟐
line supplies 1000kW at 11kV,0.8 power factor lagging. 𝑑
The line resistance and inductance are 0.04 Ω and 0.75mH L == 2𝑥10−7 𝑙𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 H/m
𝑟1
300
per phase km respectively. Determine the: (7mks) L = 2𝑥10−7 𝑥 200 𝑥1000𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 H/m
0.7788
i)Sending end voltage = 0.238H
Sln 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 𝑥50 𝑥0.238 = 74.8Ω
Sln
Z = R + j𝑋𝐿
= 16 + j74.8 = 76.5<77.930 Ω

ii)Capacitive susceptance (2mks)

2𝜋𝑙𝜀0
C= 𝑑 F/m
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟
2𝜋𝑥 200 𝑥1000 𝑥 8.85𝑥 10 −12
= 300
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
1
Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 lagging = 1.95𝑥10 F −6
11000
Receiving end voltage/phase = = 6351V
√3
Inductanctance per phase = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑥 50 𝑥 0.75 𝑥10−3
=0.2357Ω
Impedance/phase 𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 0.04 + j0.2357
50 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
iii)Receiving end current in complex form
(2mks)
VOLTAGE SURGE
Objective
Sln
2)Explain the causes for surges in transmission lines
𝑃 30 𝑥106
𝐼𝑅 = = = 309𝐴 at 0.85pf lag a)Direct and indirect lightning strokes
√3𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑟 √3 𝑥66000 𝑥 0.85
𝐼𝑅 = 309 (0.85 – j0.53) = 262.7 – j164 A b)Switching surge due to:
= 308.74<−31.790 A i)Open circuited lines
ii)Short circuited lines
iii)Load interruptions
iv)Voltage drop 𝑽𝟏 across the capacitor (2mks)
iv)Arching ground lines
Sln
𝐼𝑅 𝑍
3)Explain the phenomenon of surges in transmission lines
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑅 + systems
2
(77.57.9)(308.74<−31.79) i)Surge velocity
= 38105 + = 46105 + j8112 V
2 ii)surge impedance
iii)Open circuited lines
KNEC O/N 2022 iv)Short circuited lines
A three phase transmission line has conductors of 4)Describe the protection of surges against over
diameter 3cm,spaced 2m apart in an equilateral voltage
formation. A voltage wave of 11kV travels along the lines. i)Overhead earth wire
Determine the: ii)Horn gaps
i)Inductance per unit length (2mks) iii)Silicon and Zinc oxide surge diverters
sln iv)Peterson coil
𝑑
Inductance per unit length L = 2𝑥10−7 𝑙𝑛 H/m
𝑟
1 VOLTAGE SURGE
D equivalent = 3√𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3
3 Voltage Surge
D equivalent = √2 𝑥 2 𝑥2 = 2 A sudden rise in voltage for a very short duration on the power
𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.7788 xr =0.7788 x0.15 = 0.011682 system
200
L = 2𝑥10−7 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 1.028𝑥10−6 H/m
0.01182 It is caused by sudden change in voltage at appoint in the
system.Since transmission lines are connected with shunt
ii)Capacitance per unit length (2mks) capacitor and resistors in series and induces speed over the line.
Sln There is time delay. This time delay takes time before it reaches
𝟐𝝅𝜺
C per unit length = 𝑑 F/m the end point due to electromagnetic fields in the line. The
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟 velocity at which the change or surge travels to the other part
𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟗 𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟗
= 𝑑 = 200 = 1.136𝑥10−11 F/m of the system depends on the media which the surge is
𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟 1.5 travelling.
Transients or surges are of temporary nature and exist for a very
short duration (a few hundred(𝜇s) but they cause over voltages
iii)Natural impedance (2mks)
on the power system. They originate from switching and from
𝐿 1.028𝑥10−6
𝑍𝑛 = √ = √ = 300.82Ω other causes but by far the most important transients are those
𝐶 1.136𝑥10−11
caused by lightning striking a transmission line. When lightning
strikes a line, the surge rushes along the line, just as a flood of
iv)line current (2mks) water rushes along a narrow valley when the retaining wall of
Sln a reservoir at its head suddenly gives way. In most of the cases,
𝑽
Line current = such surges may cause the line insulators (near the point where
𝑍𝑛
𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 lightning has struck) to flash over and may also damage the
𝑽𝒑𝒉 = = 635V0.85 nearby transformers, generators or other equipment
√𝟑
𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟎.𝟖𝟓 connected to the line if the equipment is not suitably
Line current = = 21.11A
300.82
protected.

51 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

The above figure shows the wave-form of a typical lightning
surge. The voltage build-up is taken along y-axis and the time
along x-axis. It may be seen that lightning introduces a steep-
fronted wave. The steeper the wave front, the more rapid is
the build-up of voltage at any point in the network. In most of
the cases, this build-up is comparatively rapid, being of the
order of 1–5 𝜇s. Voltage surges are generally specified in
terms of rise time t1 and the time t2 to decay to half of the
peak value. For example, a 1/50 𝜇s surge is one which reaches
its maximum value in 1𝜇s and decays to half of its peak value is
50 𝜇s.
In practice, the steepness of the waveform is of great
importance since it indicates the rate of rise at any point . The
system breakdown voltage of insulation varies with the rise of
rate of voltage.
Current Surge
A voltage surge is always accompanied by current surge
which travels at the same velocity.
The associated current surge consist of charging and
discharging capacitance current caused by changes in the
voltage across shunt capacitance in transmission line.
Causes of Overvoltage’s
The causes of overvoltage on a power system may be broadly
divided into two main categories.
a)Internal causes
i)Switching surges (switching of an open circuit line)
ii)Insulation failure
iii)Arcing ground (line – ground –fault)
iv)Resonance (when 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿𝑪)
v)Short circuit of transmission line
b)External causes i.e. lightning
Internal factors
1.Switching surges
These are due to oscillations set up by the sudden changes in
the circuit conditions. i.e normal switching operation such as
opening of a circuit breaker, or it may be the fault
condition such as grounding of a line conductor.
Such overvoltages produces by switching operations (Open
circuit) of circuit breakers are known as Switching surge.
a)Case of an open line (open circuit) During switching
operations of an unloaded line, travelling waves are set up
which produce over voltages on the line. As an illustration,
consider an unloaded line being connected to a voltage source
as shown
52 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
When the unloaded line is connected to the voltage source, a
voltage wave is set up which travels along the line. On reaching
the terminal point A , it is reflected back to the supply end
without change of sign. This causes voltage doubling i.e.
voltage on the line becomes twice the normal value.
.
b)Case of a loaded line. Overvoltage’s will also be produced
during the switching operations of a loaded line. Suppose a
loaded line is suddenly interrupted. It sets up a voltage across
the break.
c)Current chopping. This is caused by powerful deionizing
effect of air-blast circuit breaker which causes the current to
fall abruptly to zero before the natural current zero is reached.
Current chopping results in the production of high voltage
transients across the contacts of the air blast circuit breaker..
Overvoltage’s due to current chopping are prevented by
resistance switching
2.Insulation failure. The most common case of insulation
failure in a power system is the grounding of conductor (i.e.
insulation failure between line and earth) which may cause over
voltages in the system.
Suppose a line at a potential E is Earthed at point X, the
earthing of the line causes two equal voltages of –E to travel
−𝐸 +𝐸
along XQ and XP containing currents and respectively
𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛
Both these currents pass through X to earth so that current to
earth is 2 E/Zn.
3. line-to-ground fault (Arcing ground. )
It is an earth fault on one-phase of an insulated neutral system
in a 3-phase line. The fault phase will have its potential
lowered to such an extent that the arc will be extinguished.
-at this instant, the potential of the healthy phases are so,
suddenly raised that voltage surge is initiated.
The phenomenon of intermittent arc taking place in line-to-
ground fault of a 3 phase system with consequent production
of transients
This was used in the early days of transmission where the
neutral of three phase lines was not earthed to gain two
advantages. Firstly, in case of line-to-ground fault, the line is
not put out of action. Secondly, the zero sequence currents are
eliminated, resulting in the decrease of interference with
communication lines. Insulated neutrals give no problem with
short lines and comparatively low voltages. However, when the
lines are long and operate at high voltages, serious problem
called arcing ground is often witnessed. The arcing ground
produces severe oscillations of three to four times the normal
voltage.
The transients produced due to arcing ground are cumulative
and may cause serious damage to the equipment in the power
system by causing breakdown of insulation. Arcing ground
can be prevented by earthing the neutral.
4.Resonance. ( when L = C )- ie (𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿𝑪 ) Resonance in an
electrical system occurs when inductive reactance of the
circuit becomes equal to capacitive reactance. Under
resonance, the impedance of the circuit is equal to resistance of
the circuit and the p.f. is unity. Resonance causes high voltages
in the electrical system. In the usual transmission lines, the
capacitance is very small so that resonance rarely occurs at the
fundamental supply frequency. However, if generator e.m.f.
wave is distorted, the trouble of resonance may occur due to
5th or higher harmonics and in case of underground cables too.
NOTE:Internal causes do not produce surges of large
magnitude. Experience shows that surges due to internal
causes hardly increase the system voltage to twice the normal
value.
Generally, surges due to internal causes are taken care of by
providing proper insulation to the equipment in the power
system.
Causes of High Voltage surge
1)Direct lighting stroke on overhead conductors.
-This may initiate a surge having amagnitude of 10million volts.
It is the most severe surge but very rare
Surges due to lightning are very severe and may increase the
system voltage to several times the normal value. If the
equipment in the power system is not protected against
lightning surges, these surges may cause considerable damage.
In fact, in a power system, the protective devices provided
against over voltages mainly take care of lightning surges.
2) Cloud to cloud or Cloud to Earth discharge in the
viscinity of the overhead conductor.
-A positively charged cloud ‘electrostatically’’ induces a
corresponding negative charge on an overhead line in the
vicinity. When a cloud discharges to earth into another cloud, the
negative charges on the line is isolated leading to high negative
voltage surge.
3)Switching on an open – circuited line
When the switch is closed, High voltage surge E does not
instantaneously appear at the receiving end.
E is 1st opposed by the back emf induced in 𝐿1 by the flow of I to
charge𝐶1 .
The voltage developed across 𝐶1 causes current to flow through
𝐶1 and 𝐿2 . The continuous interchange of electromagnetic
energy causes a time delay before it appears at the receiving end.
Short –Circuit of transmission line
At a fault, the voltage is reduced to zero causing to sudden
redistribution of electrostatic and electromagnetic energy
53 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
TYPES OF SURGES
There are four types of voltage surges which may disturb
electrical installations and loads:
1. Operating voltage surge
2. Transient overvoltage at industrial frequency
3. Voltage surges caused by electrostatic discharge
4. Atmospheric voltage surges
1.Operating voltage surge
An electrical network causes transient phenomena to occur.
These are generally high frequency or damped oscillation
voltage surge waves
Causes of operating voltage surges
i. The opening of protection devices (fuse, circuit-
breaker), and the opening or closing of control
devices (relays, contactors, etc.)
ii. Inductive circuits due to motors starting and stopping,
or the opening of transformers such as MV/LV
substations
iii. Capacitive circuits - due to the connection of capacitor
banks to the network
iv. All devices that contain a coil, a capacitor or a
transformer at the power supply inlet e.g: relays,
contactors, television sets, printers, computers, electric
ovens, filters, etc.
3. Transient over voltage
These over-voltages have the same frequency as the network
(50 or 60 Hz);
Causes of transient over-voltages at industrial
frequency
i. Phase/frame or phase/earth insulating faults
on a network with an insulated neutral, or by the
breakdown of the neutral conductor. When this
happens, single-phase devices will be supplied
in 415 V instead of 230 V.
ii. A cable breakdown. For example, a medium
voltage cable which falls on a low voltage line.
iii. The arcing of a high or medium voltage
protective spark gap causing a rise in earth
 potential during the action of the protection
devices. These protection devices follow
automatic switching cycles, which will recreate
a fault if it persists.
3.Voltage surge caused by electrical discharge
i. Insulated neutral, or by the breakdown of the
neutral conductor. When this happens, single
phase devices will be supplied in 415 V instead of
230 V.
ii. A cable breakdown. For example, a medium
voltage cable which falls on a low voltage line.
iii. The arcing of a high or medium voltage protective
spark-gap causing a rise in earth potential during
the action of the protection devices.
4. Atmospheric voltage surge
Lightning
An electric discharge between cloud and earth, between
clouds or between the charge centers of the same cloud is
known as lightning.
Lightning is a huge spark and takes place when clouds are
charged to such a high potential (+ve or -ve) with respect to
earth or a neighboring cloud that the dielectric strength of
neighboring medium (air) is destroyed.
It is based on the theory that one is that during the uprush of
warm moist air from earth, the friction between the air and the
tiny particles of water causes the building up of charges. When
drops of water are formed, the larger drops become positively
charged and the smaller drops become negatively charged.
When the drops of water accumulate, they form clouds, and
hence cloud may possess either a positive or a negative charge,
depending upon the charge of drops of water they contain. The
charge on a cloud may become so great that it may discharge
to another cloud or to earth and we call this discharge as
lightning. The thunder which accompanies lightning is due
to the fact that lightning suddenly heats up the air, thereby
causing it to expand. The surrounding air pushes the expanded
air back and forth causing the wave motion of air which we
recognize as thunder.
Mechanism of Lightning Discharge
When a charged cloud passes over the earth, it induces equal
and opposite charge on the earth below. The figure below
shows a negatively charged cloud inducing a positive charge
on the earth below it. As the charge acquired by the cloud
increases, the potential between cloud and earth increases and,
therefore, gradient in the air increases. When the potential
gradient is sufficient (5 kV*/cm to 10 kV/cm) to break down
the surrounding air, the lightning stroke starts.
As soon as the air near the cloud breaks down, a streamer
called leader streamer or pilot streamer starts from the
cloud towards the earth and carries charge with it .
(i)The leader streamer will continue its journey towards
earth as long as the cloud, from which it originates feeds
enough charge to it to maintain gradient at the tip of leader
streamer above the strength of air. If this gradient is not
maintained, the leader streamer stops and the charge is
54 | P a g e
dissipated without the formation of a complete stroke. In other
words, the leader streamer will not reach the earth fig (i)
below.
ii)In many cases, the leader streamer continues its journey
towards earth ,see figure (ii) until it makes contact with earth or
some object on the earth. As the leader streamer moves towards
earth,it is accompanied by points of luminescence which
travel in jumps giving rise to stepped leaders. The velocity of
stepped leader exceeds one-sixth of that of light and distance
travelled in one step is about 50 m. It may be noted that
stepped leaders have sufficient luminosity and give rise to first
visual phenomenon of discharge.
The path of leader streamer is a path of ionisation and,
therefore, of complete breakdown of insulation. As the leader
streamer reaches near the earth, a return streamer shoots up
from the earth [See Fig. 24.4 (iii)] to the cloud, following the
same path as the main channel of the downward leader. The
action can be compared with the closing of a switch between
the positive and negative terminals; the downward leader
having negative charge and re- turn streamer the positive
charge. This phenomenon causes a sudden spark which we
call lightning.
The following points may be noted about lightning
discharge:
i. A lightning discharge, which usually appears to the eye as a single
flash, is in reality made up of a number of separate strokes
that travel down the same path. The interval between them
varies from 0·0005 to 0·5 second. Each separate stroke
starts as a downward leader from the cloud.
ii. It has been found that 87% of all lightning strokes result
from negatively charged clouds and only 13% originate
from positively charged clouds.
iii. It has been estimated that throughout the world, there
occur about 100 lightning strokes per second.
iv. Lightning discharge may have currents in the range of 10
kA to 90 kA.
Types of Lightning Strokes
There are two main ways in which a lightning may strike the
power system (e.g. overhead lines, towers, sub-stations etc.),
namely;
1. Direct stroke
2. Indirect stroke
Direct stroke. In the direct stroke, the lightning discharge (i.e.
current path) is directly from the cloud to the subject
equipment e.g. an overhead line. From the line, the current
BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
path may be over the insulators down the pole to the ground.
The direct stroke is of two types: SURGE VOLTAGE PROPAGATION MODE
The TWO kinds of surge voltage propagation modes
• Common mode
• Differential Mode

a) Common mode surge

a)Stroke A – Where lightning discharge is from the cloud to

the subject equipment i.e (i) above
b)Stroke B - the lightning discharge occurs on the overhead
line as a result of stroke A between the clouds as shown in (ii)
above. There are three clouds P, Q and R having positive,
negative and positive charges respectively. The charge on the
cloud Q is bound by the cloud R. If the cloud P shifts too near
the cloud Q, then lightning discharge will occur between them
and charges on both these clouds disappear quickly. The result
is that charge on cloud R suddenly becomes free and it then
discharges rapidly to earth, ignoring tall objects. a)Common mode voltage surges occur between the live parts
and the earth i.e. phase/earth or neutral/earth.
Indirect stroke. Indirect strokes result from the i. They are especially dangerous for devices
electrostatically induced charges on the conductors due to whose frame is earthed due to the risk of
the presence of charged clouds. A positively charged cloud is dielectric breakdown.
above the line and induces a negative charge on the line by
electrostatic induction. b) Differential mode
ii. Differential mode voltage surges circulate
between live conductors: Phase to phase or
phase to neutral

Harmful effects of Lighting

i)Shatters the insulators and wreck poles
ii) Huge current that can cause fires
iii) Damages to transformer windings
iv)Electrodynamic effects: when the lightning currents
circulate in parallel conductors, they provoke attraction or
repulsion forces between the wires, causing breaks or
mechanical deformations (crushed or flattened wires)
v)Combustion effects: lightning can cause the air to expand They are especially sensitive computer equipment, etc.
and create overpressure, which stretches over a distance of a dangerous for electronic equipment,
dozen meters
vi)A blast effect breaks windows or and can throw animals or SURGE VELOCITY
people several meters away from their original
vii)A shock wave is also transformed into a sound wave:
thunder or telephone lines or induced by the electromagnetic
induction effect.
viii)The elevation of the earth potential by the circulation of
the lightning current in the ground. This explains indirect
strokes of lightning by step voltage and the breakdown of
equipment

55 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Let the velocity of the surge be x m/s and charging the line at = [
1 √𝐶
] 𝐸2
a potential of E volts 2 √𝐿
-let the line have capacitance C farads /m Dividing both Numerator and denominator by √𝐶
-The charge required per second = CEx √𝐶
1
From Q = It = [√𝐶
√𝐿
] 𝐸2
2
𝑄 √𝐶
I = = CEx ------ eqtn 1
𝑡
Let the line have the inductance L H/m 1 𝐸
= [ ]𝐸
Length of x metres has an inductance Lx 2
√
𝐿
𝐶
-Now the voltage to overcome the back emf
= Lx . I volts 𝑳
But 𝒁𝟎 =√ Ω
Thus E = Lx . I -------- eqtn 2 𝑪
1 𝐸
Equiting equation (ii) into eqtn (i) = [ ]𝐸
𝑄 2 𝒁𝟎
I = = CEx = C(Lx)(x) = LC𝑥 2 𝐸
𝑡 but I =
1 𝒁𝟎
𝑥2 = hence:
𝐿𝐶
1 1 1
x=√ m/s or x = m/s = [𝐼]𝐸
𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶 2
1
Electrostatic energy = 𝐼𝐸
2
Surge velocity in a single –phase Overhead line
𝒅
L = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒍𝒏 H/m Again
𝒓 1 1
C=
𝟏
F/m 𝐿𝑥𝐼 2 = 𝐿𝑥𝐼 2
𝒅 2 2
𝟑𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒙 𝒍𝒏
𝒓
Surge velocity in a 3 –phase Overhead line in air 1 𝐿
1 1 = [ ] 𝐼2
x= = = 3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠 2 √𝐿𝐶
√𝐿𝐶 −𝟕 𝒍𝒏𝒅 𝑥 𝟏 1 √𝐿 𝑥 √𝐿
√𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒓 𝟑𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒙 𝒍𝒏𝒅 = [ ] 𝐼2
𝒓 2 √𝐿 𝑥 √𝐶
1 √𝐿 2
which is the speed of light in light = [ ]𝐼
2 √𝐶

Impedance , 𝒁𝟎 (characteristic impedance) Dividing both Numerator and denominator by √𝐿

√𝐿
The expression: 1
√𝐿
= [√𝐶 ] 𝐼2
I = CEx and E = Lx . I 2
𝑽 𝑬 √𝐿
Impedence Z = 𝒐𝒓
𝑰 𝑰 1 1
Hence = [√𝐶 ] 𝐼
2
𝑬 𝑳𝒙𝑰 𝑳𝑰 √𝐿
Z= = =
𝑰 𝑪𝑬𝒙 𝑪𝑬 𝑳
𝑬
=
𝑳𝑰
(and cross multiplying same letters only), we have: But 𝒁𝟎 =√ Ω
𝑰 𝑪𝑬 𝑪
𝑬𝟐 𝑳 1 √𝐿
= = [ 𝑥 𝐼] 𝐼
𝑰𝟐 𝑪 2 √𝐶
𝑬 𝑳 𝑳
𝑰
=√
𝑪
But 𝒁𝟎 =√ Ω
𝑪
Hence 1
= [𝒁𝟎 𝑥 𝐼]𝐼
2
𝑬 𝑳
𝒁𝟎 = = √ Ω
𝑰 𝑪
𝒁𝟎 𝑰 = E
Chracteristic impedance depends on:
hence:
- Conductor spacing 1
- Permittivity of the material 𝜀𝑟 = [𝐸]𝐼
2
1
Electromagnetic waves = [𝐸𝐼] Watts
2
Surge Power input and Energy
When switch is closed potential E volts sends the surge VOLTAGE WAVES
current (I A) Consider a reflected wave 𝑉2 (t,x) and imagine that we are
Along the line at velocity of xm/sec. riding along with the waves. For observing instantaneous
Surge power to line EI watts value, peak amplitude requires that:
Assuming an open –circuit at the far end and loss- free 𝜔t – 𝛽𝑥 = 2k𝜋
situation. 𝜔
x= 𝑡−
2𝑘𝜋
t
-Energy /sec = Energy stored/sec 𝛽 𝛽
1 1 𝑑𝑥 𝜔
EI = 𝐶𝑥𝐸 2 = 𝐿𝑥𝐼 2 Watts The speed can be given as =
2 2 𝑑𝑡 𝛽
1 𝜔 2𝜋𝑓
Substituting for x = Thus, the velocity of propagation is given by v = =
√𝐿𝐶 𝛽 𝛽
1
𝐶𝑥𝐸 = [ 2 1 𝑐
]𝐸 2 A complete voltage cycle along the line corresponds to
2 2 √𝐿𝐶 achange of 2𝜋 radian in the angular argument 𝛽𝑥.The
1 √𝐶 𝑥 √𝐶
= [ ] 𝐸2
2 √𝐿 𝑥 √𝐶

56 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

corresponding line length is defined as the wavelength . If 𝛽 is TERMINATIONS
expressed in rad/min
𝛽𝜆 = 2𝜋
𝟐𝝅
Wavelength 𝝀 =
𝜷
When line lossess are neglected i.e when g = 0 and 𝛾 = 0,
then the real part of the propagation constant ∝ = 0
𝛾 = ∝ +j𝛽 = √𝑧𝑦 = √(𝑟 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝑔 + 𝑗𝜔𝑐)
And hence:
Propagation constant: 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝐿𝐶
And
𝑧 𝐿
The characteristic impedance 𝑍𝑐 , = √ = √
𝑦 𝐶
Its value lies between 250 ohm and 400 ohm in case of Derivation of Equation of termination
Overhead transmission lines and between 40 ohm and 60 ohm 𝐸
𝑍0 = 𝑖
in case of underground cables. 𝐼𝑖
Where : 𝑍0 = Surge impedance
Velocity of propagation v =
1 𝐸𝑖 = Incident voltage surge
√𝐿𝐶 𝐼𝑖 = Incident current surge.
𝝁 𝑫
The inductance L = 𝟎 𝐥𝐧( ) The sudden build up of this excess potential and current
𝟐𝝅 𝒓′
And causes surges to travel from the terminal back towards the
𝟐𝝅𝜺
Capacitance C = 𝑫𝟎 sending end of the the line giving reflected surge ( Er )
𝐥𝐧( )
𝒓 voltage and reflected current Ir
𝐸𝑟 =𝐸𝑇 -𝐸𝑖 Volts
SURGE IMPEDENCE 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼𝑇 - 𝐼𝑖 Ampere
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of a transmission line is Where 𝐸𝑇 and 𝐼𝑇 terminal voltages and current
defined as the power delivered by a line to purely resistive
𝐸𝑖 = Emf (incident value)
load equal in value to the surge impedance of the line.
𝐸𝑟 = Emf (reflected)
When the transmission line is loaded by being terminated with
𝐼𝑖 = Current (incident value value)
an impedance equal to its characteristics impedance, the
receiving end current is: 𝐼𝑟 = current ( reflected)
𝑽 Thus
𝑰𝑹 = 𝑹
𝒁𝑪 𝐸𝑇 =𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖 ----- eqtn (i)
For a loss less line 𝑍𝐶 is purely resistive. 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝐼𝑖 ……... eqtn (ii)
SIL is given by: But
𝟑|𝑽𝑹 |𝟐 𝐸 𝐸
SIL =
𝒁𝒄
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑖 , hence 𝐼𝑇 = 𝑇
𝑍0 𝑅
|𝑉𝐿 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 | −𝐸𝑟
Since |𝑉𝑅 | = 𝐼𝑟 = (Note: The negative sign shows 𝐼𝑟 moves in opposite
√3 𝑍0
3|𝑉𝐿 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 |2 direction)
SIL becomes SIL =
𝑍𝑐
Substituting these values in eqtn (ii)
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝐼𝑖
Example 𝐸𝑇 −𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
A three phase, 50Hz, 400kV transmission line is 300km = 𝑟+ 𝑖 = 𝑖− 𝑟
𝑅 𝑍0 𝑍0 𝑍0 𝑍0
long. The line inductance is 0.97mH/km per phase and But 𝐸𝑇 =𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖
capacitance is 0.0115𝝁𝑭/Km per phase. Assume a loss less 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖 𝐸 −𝐸
= 𝑖 𝑟
line. Determine the line phase constants 𝜷, 𝒁𝒄 , v and λ 𝑅 𝑍0
Sln 𝑍0 [𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖 ] = R[𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑟 ]
𝑍0 𝐸𝑟 + 𝑍0 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑅𝐸𝑖 − 𝑅𝐸𝑟
a) propagation constant 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝐿𝐶
Collecting 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑟 together
= 2𝜋𝑥50 √0.97 𝑥 0.0115 𝑥 10−9 𝑍0 𝐸𝑟 + 𝑅𝐸𝑟 = 𝑅𝐸𝑖 − 𝑍0 𝐸𝑖
= 0.00105 rad/km 𝐸𝑟 [𝑍0 + 𝑅 ] = [𝑅 − 𝑍0 ]𝐸𝑖
R −Z0
𝐿 0.97 𝑥 10−3 𝐸𝑟 = [ ] 𝐸𝑖
b) Surge impedance: 𝑍𝑐 , = √ = √ R +Z0
𝐶 0.0115 𝑥 10−6 R –Z0
Hence reflection factor or coefficient 𝜌 = [ ]
= 290.43 ohm R +Z0
1 1 Hence
c) Velocity of propagation v = =
√𝐿𝐶 √0.97 𝑥 0.0115 𝑥 10−9 Reflected surge voltage 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖
5
v = 2.994 x 10 km/sec
And substituting 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 into 𝐸𝑇 =𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖
d) Line wavelength 𝜆 = =
𝑣 1
v Rem 𝐸𝑟 = −𝐼𝑟 𝑍0 and 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
𝑓 50 Thus 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖
1
= x 2.994 x 105 = 4990 km −𝐼𝑟 𝑍0 = 𝜌𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
50
𝐼𝑟 = −𝜌𝐼𝑖
57 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Again 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑟
From
R −Z0 Where 𝐸𝑡 = Emf transmitted
𝐸𝑟 = [ ] 𝐸𝑖
R +Z0
𝐸𝑖 = Emf (incident value)
And substituting into 𝐸𝑇 =𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖
R −Z0
𝐸𝑟 = Emf (reflected)
𝐸𝑇 = [ ]𝐸
𝑖 𝑖 +𝐸 𝐼𝑡 = current transmitted
R +Z0
(R −Z0 )𝐸𝑖 + (R+Z0)𝐸𝑖 𝐼𝑖 = Current (incident value value)
𝐸𝑇 = [ ]
R +Z0 𝐼𝑟 = current ( reflected)
2R𝐸𝑖
𝐸𝑇 = [ ]
R +Z0
2R ii)Voltage and current surge when (R >𝐙𝟎 )
𝐸𝑇 = [ ] 𝐸𝑖
R +Z0
And
2R
Transmission coefficient 𝛾 = R +Z0
And therefore 𝐸𝑡 = 𝜸 𝐸𝑖

Now further :
from:
𝐸 𝐸
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑖 , 𝐼𝑇 = 𝑇
𝑍0 𝑅
𝐸𝑇 = R𝐼𝑇
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
And substituting the above into : Expressions for 𝐸𝑡 and 𝐼𝑡
2R
𝐸𝑇 = [ ] 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖 +𝐸𝑟
R +Z0
Will give 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑖 - 𝐼𝑟
2R The line capacitance discharges to supply that current and
R𝐼𝑇 = [ ] 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
R +Z0 causes that voltage to go down.
R𝐼𝑇 = [𝛾] 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
R𝐼𝑇 = 𝜸 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0 Example
𝜸 𝒁𝟎 An overhead line has an inductance of L = 1.38mH/km
𝑰𝑻 = [ ] 𝑰𝒊 ----- Eqtn (iii)
𝑹
and a capacitance of C = 0.00808𝛍F/km. It is connected in
Note that 𝛾 = 𝜌 + 1
R −Z0 series with an underground cable having an inductance of
𝛾 = 𝜌 + 1 =[ ]+𝟏 L = 0.185mH/km and a capacitance of C = 0.217𝛍F/km.
R +Z0

𝛾 =[
R −Z0 + R+Z0
]=
2R Calculate value of transmitted and reflected waves of
R +Z0 R +Z0 Voltages and current at the line and ground cable junction
The voltage and current surges when R is greater than 𝑍0 caused a voltage surge of 50kV travelling towards the
from the graph below: the reflected surges consists of junction.
increased voltages and reduced current a)from the line end
b)From the cable end
Three various of terminations impedance are : Sln
1)Impedance before the termination is equal (R =𝑍0 ) to the a)from the line end
impedance after termination
ii)Impedance before termination is less than impedance after Impedance of line
termination (R <𝑍0 )
𝑳 𝟏.𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
iii)impedance before termination is greater than the 𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 =𝒁𝟎 = √ = √ = 413.27Ω
𝑪 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
impedance after termination (R >𝑍0 ) 𝐸𝑖 50 𝑥 1000
𝐼𝑖 = = = 0.121kA
𝑍0 413.27
i)Voltage and current surge when (R <𝐙𝟎 )
Impedance of cable
𝑳 𝟎.𝟏𝟖𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒁𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 = √ = √ = 29.36Ω
𝑪 𝟎.𝟐𝟏𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

NOTE: From line to cable:

Travelling 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝑳 = 413.3Ω
Termination R = 𝒁𝑪 = 29.36Ω
R −Z0 ZCable −ZLine
Rreflection coefficient of line: ρ = =
R +Z0 ZCable +ZLine
29.36 −413.27
= = -0.867
29.36 +413.27
2R
Transmission coefficient of cable γ =
R +Z0
2 x 29.36
Expressions for 𝐸𝑡 and 𝐼𝑡 = = 0.133
29.36 +413.27
𝐸𝑡 =𝐸𝑖 -𝐸𝑟
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Emf (reflected) 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 = -0.867 x 50000 = - 43.35kV
−𝐸 −43.35 ii)Relative permittivity of the cable:
Current reflected) 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 = = 0.105kA
𝑍0 413.27 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Emf (transmitted) 𝐸𝑡 = 𝜸 𝐸𝑖 = 0.133 x 50000 = 6.65kV 𝑥𝑐 =
√𝜀𝑟
−𝐸 6.6𝑘𝑉 𝟑.𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟖
Current (transmitted) 𝐼𝑡 = 𝑡 = = 0.226kA 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 =
𝑍0 413.27 √𝜀𝑟
𝜀𝑟 = 3.65

Example
Calculate for the time taken to travel for 160km in the
above example:
a)In the line
b)In the cable

Sln
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Time T =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
Hence :
b)from the cable end a) For the line,
NOTE: From cable to line: 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 160
Travelling 𝑍0 = 𝑍𝐶 = 29.36Ω T= = = 0.533ms
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝟑.𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝒌𝒎/𝒔
Termination R = 𝑍𝐿 = 413.27Ω
For the cable,
𝐸𝑖 50 𝑥 1000 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 160
𝐼𝑖 = = = 1.7kA T= = = 01.019ms
𝑍0 29.36 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝟏.𝟓𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝒌𝒎/𝒔
𝑅 −𝑍0 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 −𝑍𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
Reflection coefficient of cable: 𝜌 = = =
𝑅 +𝑍0 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 +𝑍𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
413.27 −29.36 Example
= 0.867 An overhead transmission line having inductance of
413.27 +29.36
2𝑅 2 𝑥 413.27
Transmission coeeficeint of Line 𝛾 = = = 2mH/km and capacitance of 0.01𝝁F/km is connected in
𝑅 +𝑍0 413.27 +29.36
series with an underground cable having an inductance of
1.867
0.25mH/km and capacitance of 0.102 𝝁𝑭/𝒌𝒎. If a voltage
Emf (reflected) 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 = 0.867 x 50000 = 43.35kV
−𝐸 −43.35 surge of 100kV travels along the overhead line towards its
Current reflected) 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 = = -.1.47kA junction with cable, calculate the:
𝑍0 29.27
Emf (transmitted) 𝐸𝑡 = 𝛾 𝐸𝑖 = 01.867 x 50000 = 93.35kV (9mks)
−𝐸 93.35𝑉 i)Reflected voltage and current
Current (transmitted) 𝐼𝑡 = 𝑡 = = 0.23kA
𝑍0 413.27 Impedance of line
𝑳 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 =𝒁𝟎 = √ = √ = 447.2Ω
𝑪 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
𝐸𝑖 100 𝑥 1000
𝐼𝑖 = = = 0.2236kA
𝑍0 447,2

Impedance of cable
𝑳 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒁𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 = √ = √ = 49.5Ω
𝑪 𝟎.𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

NOTE: From line to cable:

Travelling 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝑳 = 447.2Ω
Termination R = 𝒁𝑪 = 49.5Ω
Example Rreflection coefficient of line: ρ =
R −Z0
=
ZCable −ZLine
Calculate the volicy in the line and velocity in the cable R +Z0 ZCable +ZLine
49.5−447.2
and relative permittivity 𝜺𝒓 for the above example . =
49.5 +447.2
= -0.800
Sln 2R
Transmission coefficient of cable γ =
i)Parameters of the line R +Z0
2 x 49.5
L=1.38 𝑥 10−3 H =
49.5 +447.2
= 0.1993
C = 0.00808 𝑥10 −6 F Emf (reflected) 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 = -0.80 x 100000 = -8kV
Surge velocity in the line −𝐸 −8000
1 1
Current reflected) 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 = = 0.0179kA
𝑍0 447.2
x= = = 𝟑. 𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 km/s
√𝐿𝐶 −𝟑
√𝟏.𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
𝑥 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎 Emf (transmitted) 𝐸𝑡 = 𝜸 𝐸𝑖 = 0.1993 x 100000 = 19.93kV
−𝐸 19.93𝑘𝑉
Current (transmitted) 𝐼𝑡 = 𝑡 = = 0.0446kA
Parameters of the Cable 𝑍0 447.2

L= 0.18 𝑥 10−3 H ii)Ralative permittivity of the cable

C = 0.217 𝑥10 −6 F Surge velocity in the line
1 1
Surge velocity in the line x= = −𝟑 −𝟔
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 km/s
√𝐿𝐶 √𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝑥 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝒙𝟏𝟎
1 1
x= = −𝟑
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 km/s
√𝐿𝐶 √𝟎.𝟏𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝑥 𝟎.𝟐𝟏𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

59 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑥𝑐 =
√𝜀𝑟 OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION DEVICES
𝟑.𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟖
𝟐. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 = i) Overhead earth wire
√𝜀𝑟
𝜀𝑟 = 36.63 ii) Horn Gap
iii) Non –Linear surge diverters
Example iv) Penterson Coil
An Overhead transmission line having an inductance of
Two major types of protection devices are used to suppress or
1.28mH per Km and a capacitance of 0.00602𝝁𝑭 per Km is
limit voltage surges they are referred to as:
connected in series with an underground cable having an
inductance of 0.167mH per km and a capacitance of 0.201 i. Primary protection devices and
ii. Secondary protection devices
𝝁𝑭 per Km.
Determine the surge velocities in: (5mks)
a) Primary protection devices (protection of installations
i)Transmission line:
against lightning)
Sln
1 1 -The purpose of primary protection devices is to protect
x= = installations against direct strokes of lightning. They catch
√𝐿𝐶 √𝟏.𝟐𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑥 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟎𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
=3.602 x10 m/s5 and run the lightning current into the ground.
-The principle is based on a protection area determined by a
structure, which is higher than the rest.
ii)Underground cable -The same applies to any peak effect produced by a pole,
1 1 building or very high metallic structure.
x= = −3
√𝐿𝐶 √0.167 𝑥 10 𝑥 0.201 𝑥10 –6
= 1.726 𝑥10 5 m/s
There are three types of primary protection:
a)Lightning conductors (which are the oldest and best known
Transmitted and reflected waves of voltages and current lightning protection device)
In Open and short circuit b)Overhead earth wires
c)The meshed cage or Faraday cage
When TL is open When TL is short
Circuited (R = ∞) circuited (R = 0) a)Lightning Conductors
For transmitted voltage For transmitted voltage

𝑅 −𝑍0 𝑅 −𝑍0
𝐸𝑟 =[ ] 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑟 =[ ] 𝐸𝑖
𝑅 +𝑍0 𝑅 +𝑍0
And R = ∞
And thus: And R = 0
𝑅 −𝑍 0 −𝑍
𝐸𝑟 =[ 0 ] 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑟 =[ 0 ] 𝐸𝑖
𝑅 +𝑍0 0 +𝑍0
𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑟 = −𝐸𝑖
Note that: Note that:
𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖
So: So:
𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖 + 𝐸𝑖 = 2𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖 + (−𝐸𝑖 ) = 0
i.e the surge doubles

For the transmitted For the transmitted This is a tapered rod placed on top of the
Current current building. It is earthed by one or more
−𝐸 −𝐸
𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 conductors (often copper strips)
𝑍0 𝑍0
But 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑖 But 𝐸𝑟 = −𝐸𝑖
−𝐸 −𝐸 -Attention must be paid to the copper strip paths, the test
𝐼𝑟 = 𝑖 =−𝐼𝑖 𝐼𝑟 =- 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖
𝑍0 𝑍0 clamps, the crow-foot earthing to help high frequency
So: So: lightning currents run to the ground, and the distances in
𝐼𝑡 = −𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑖 = 0 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑖 = 2𝐼𝑖 relation to the wiring system (gas, water, etc.).
i.e No current is i.e current is double
transmitted
-Furthermore, the flow of the lightning current to the ground
will induce voltage surges, by electromagnetic radiation, in
Illustration Illustration the electrical circuits and buildings to be protected.

-These may reach several dozen kilovolts. It is therefore

necessary to symmetrically split the down conductor currents
in two, four or more, in order to minimize electromagnetic
effects.
60 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
b) Overhead earth wires/Overhead Earth wires
It is the most effective method of providing protection to
transmission lines against direct lightning strokes .
-It is a wire carried by the line supports and runs over the
phase conductors.
-The ground wires(Earth) are placed above the line
conductors at such positions that practically all lightning
strokes are intercepted by them (i.e. ground wires). The
ground wires are grounded at each tower or pole through a
low resistance as possible at regular intervals. Due to their
proper location, the ground wires will take up all the lightning
strokes instead of allowing them to line conductors. They
reduces the possibilities of a direct lightning stroke reaching
the main conductor.
When the direct lightning stroke occurs on the transmission line,
it will be taken up by the ground wires. The heavy lightning
current (10 kA to 50 kA) from the ground wire flows to the
ground, thus protecting the line from the harmful effects of
lightning.
-The main conductors also partially shield them from
electrostatically induced charges caused by charged cloud in
the vicinity of line.
-It is only effective when the resistance between the tower
/poles and the earth is too low.
Other connection are as shown below;
Apllication:
61 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
military applications and lightning protection cables for
overhead high voltage power lines
NOTE: that : The resistance must be kept
as low as possible to avoid insulator
flashover.
Advantages
i. It provides protection against direct lightning strokes on
transmission lines.
ii. A grounding wire provides damping effect on any
disturbance travelling along the line as it acts as a short-
circuited secondary.
iii. It provides a certain amount of electrostatic shielding
against external fields. Thus it reduces the voltages
induced in the line conductors due to the discharge of a
neighboring cloud.
Disadvantages
i. It requires additional cost.
ii. There is a possibility of its breaking and falling across the
line conductors, thereby causing a short-circuit fault. This
objection has been greatly eliminated by using galvanized
stranded steel conductors as ground wires. This provides
sufficient strength to the ground wires.
c) The meshed cage (Faraday cage)
This principle is used for very sensitive
buildings housing computer or integrated
circuit production equipment.
It consists in symmetrically multiplying the
number of down strips outside the building.
Horizontal links are added if the building is
high; for example every two floors
The down conductors are earthed by frog’s foot earthling
connections. The result is a series of interconnected 15 x 15
m or 10 x 10 m meshes. This produces better equipotential
bonding of the building and splits lightning currents, thus
greatly reducing electromagnetic fields and induction.
ii) Secondary protection devices (Protection of internal
installations against lightning)
These handle the effects of atmospheric, operating or
industrial frequency voltage surges.
They can be classified according to the way they are
connected in an installation:
a. Serial protection (Series protection)
b. Parallel protection
a)Serial protection device: Connected in series to the power
supply wires of the system to be protected
Types of serial protection devices
i)Transformers : They reduce voltage surges by inductor
effect and make certain harmonics disappear by coupling.
This protection is not very effective.
ii)Filters : Uses resistors, inductance coils & capacitors, they
are suitable for voltage surges caused by industrial and
operation disturbance corresponding to a clearly defined
frequency band. This protection device is not suitable for
atmospheric disturbance
iii)Wave absorbers: Made up of air inductance coils which
limit the voltage surges, and surge arresters which absorb the
currents. They are extremely suitable for protecting sensitive
electronic equipment. But they only act against voltage
surges, are extremely cumbersome and expensive.
iv)Network conditioners & static uninterrupted power
supplies (UPS):Used to protect highly sensitive equipment,
e.g. computer equipment, They regulate the voltage &
frequency, stop interference and ensure a continuous
electrical power supply even mains power failure but can not
protected against large, atmospheric type voltage surges
2.LV surge arresters: They come in the form of modules to
be installed inside LV switchboard. There are also plug-in
types and those that protect power outlets. They ensure
secondary protection of nearby elements but have a small
flow capacity. Some are even built into loads although they
cannot protect against strong voltage surges
3.Low current surge arresters or overvoltage protectors
These protect telephone or switching networks against voltage
surges from the outside (lightning), as well as from the inside
(polluting equipment, switchgear switching, etc.). They are
also installed in distribution boxes or built into loads
4.Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of Transmission Line
By applying some methods such as introducing series
capacitors (capacitors in series with the transmission line) or
shunt capacitors (capacitors in parallel with transmission
lines) can be used to reduce the value of surge impedance (Z ).
o

b) Parallel protection device: Connected in parallel to the
power supply and the device to be protected.
Main characteristics
• The rated voltage of the protection device must
correspond to the network voltage at the installation
terminals
• When there is no voltage surge, a leakage current should
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) can be increased by reducing
the Surge impedance of the line.
From the above expression Z can be decreased by either
o
increasing the capacitance (C) of the line or by reducing the
inductance (L) of the line. Inductance (L) of the transmission
line cannot be reduced easily
By use of the series capacitors surge impedance (Z ) and the
o
phase shift get reduced due to decrease in the line inductance
(L). This improves the system stability limit. These capacitors
also helps in reducing the line drops and so voltage variations.
But this method causes difficulty under short circuit
conditions of system as capacitors will get damage.
By use of shunt capacitors though the surge impedance (Z ) is
o

not go through the protection device which is on standby
• When a voltage surge above the allowable voltage
threshold of the installation to be protected occurs, the
protection device abruptly conducts the voltage surge
current to the earth by limiting the voltage to the desired
protection level Up When the voltage surge disappears,
the protection device stops conducting and returns to
standby without a holding current.
• The protection device response time (tr) must be as short
as possible to protect the installation as quickly as
possible
• The protection device must have the capacity to be able
to conduct the energy caused by the foreseeable voltage
surge on the site to be protected
• The surge arrester protection device must be able to
withstand the rated current In.
Types of parallel protection device
1.Voltage limiters: they are used in MV/LV substations at
the transformer output, in this earthing scheme. They can run
voltage surges to the earth, especially industrial
frequency surges
62 | P a g e
reduced but the phase shift of the system increases this affects
the poor stability in the system specially when synchronous
machines are under the load. This method is not employed in
long transmission lines specially when stability limits are
present
Some other methods of Protection Against Lightning
The most dangerous surges are those caused by lightning. The
lightning surges may cause serious damage to the expensive
equipment in the power system (e.g. generators, transformers
etc.) either by direct strokes or by strokes on the transmission
lines that reach the equipment as travelling waves. The most
commonly used devices for protection against lightning surges
are :
i. Earthing screen
ii. Overhead ground wires (has been discussed above)
iii. Lightning arresters or surge diverters
How- ever, lightning arresters or surge diverters protect the
station apparatus against both direct strokes and the strokes that
come into the apparatus as travelling waves. We shall briefly
discuss these methods of protection.
1.The Earthing Screen
Earthing screen provides protection to power stations and sub-
stations which house expensive equipment against direct
strokes
BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
-It consists of a network of copper conductors (generally
called shield or screen) mounted all over the electrical
equipment in the sub-station or power station. The shield is
properly connected to earth on at least two points through a
low impedance. On the occurrence of direct stroke on the
station, screen provides a low resistance path by which
lightning surges are conducted to ground.
The limitation- the limitation of this method is that it does not
provide protection against the travelling waves which may
reach the equipment in the station.
2,.Lightning Arresters
The Lightning arresters or surge diverters protect the station
apparatus against both direct strokes and the strokes that come
into the apparatus as travelling waves
A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device
which conducts the high voltage surges on the power system
to the ground.
The structure of surge arrestors
The figure below shows the basic form of a surge diverter.
It consists of a spark gap in series with a non-linear resistor.
One end of the diverter is connected to the terminal of the
equipment to be protected and the other end is effectively
grounded. The length of the gap is so set that normal line
voltage is not enough to cause an arc across the gap but a
dangerously high voltage will break down the air insulation and
form an arc. The property of the non-linear resistance is that its
63 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
resistance
Action. The action of the lightning arrester or surge diverter is
such that:
i)Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line
i.e. it conducts **no current to earth or the gap is non-
conducting.
ii)On the occurrence of overvoltage, the air insulation across
the gap breaks down and an arc is formed, providing a low
resistance path for the surge to the ground. In this way, the
excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly
conducted through the arrester to the ground instead of being
sent back over the line.
Types of Lightning Arresters
There are several types of lightning arresters in general use.
They differ only in constructional details but operate on the
same principle .i.e providing low resistance path for the
surges to the ground. We shall discuss the following types of
lightning arresters :
1.Rod gap arrester
2.Horn gap arrester
3.Multigap arrester
4.Expulsion type lightning arrester
5.Valve type lightning arrester
a)Rod Gap Arrester. It is a very simple type of diverter and
consists of two 1·5 cm rods which are bent at right angles with a
gap in-between as shown
Under normal operating conditions, the gap
remains non-conducting. On the occurrence of a high voltage
surge on the line, the gap sparks over and the surge current is
conducted to earth. In this way, excess charge on the line due
to the surge is harmlessly conducted to earth.
Limitations
i. After the surge is over, the arc in the gap is
maintained by the †normal supply voltage, leading to
a short-circuit on the system.
ii. The rods may melt or get damaged due to excessive
heat produced by the arc.
iii. The climatic conditions (e.g. rain, humidity,
temperature etc.) affect the performance of rod gap
arrester.
iv. The polarity of the surge also affects the performance
of this arrester.
 v. Due to the above limitations, the rod gap arrester is
only used as a ‘back-up’ protection in case of main
arresters.
b)Horn Gap Arrester or surge diverter . Fig. 24.10 shows the
horn gap arrester. It consists of two horn shaped metal rods A
and B separated by a small air gap. The horns are so
constructed that distance between them gradually increases
towards the top as shown. The horns are mounted on porcelain
insulators.
Under normal conditions, the gap is non-conducting i.e.
normal supply voltage is insufficient to initiate the arc
between the gap. On the occurrence of an overvoltage, spark-
over takes place across
The heated air around the arc and the magnetic effect of the
arc cause the arc to travel up the gap. The arc moves
progressively into positions 1, 2 and 3. At some position of the
arc (perhaps position 3), the distance may be too great for the
voltage to maintain the arc. Consequently, the arc is
extinguished. The excess charge on the line is thus conducted
through the arrester to the ground.
-In order to protect a piece of equipment successfully, the
horn gap should be situated as near as possible to the
equipment. Otherwise, a surge may be initiated between the
equipment and the horn gap.
Advantages
i. The arc is self-clearing. Therefore, this type of arrester
does not cause short-circuiting of the system after the
surge is over as in the case of rod gap.
ii. Series resistance helps in limiting the follow current to a
small value.
Limitations
i. The bridging of gap by some external agency (e.g. birds)
can render the device useless.
ii. The setting of horn gap is likely to change due to
corrosion or pitting. This adversely affects the
performance of the arrester.
iii. The time of operation is comparatively long, say about 3
seconds. In view of the very short operating time of
modern protective gear for feeders, this time is far long.
c)Multigap arrester. The figure below shows the multigap
arrester. It consists of a series of metallic (generally alloy of
zinc) cylinders insulated from one another and separated by
small intervals of air gaps. The first cylinder (i.e. A ) in the
series is connected to the line and the other to the ground
through a series resistance. The series resistance limits the
power arc. By the inclusion of series resistance, the degree of
protection against travelling waves is reduced. In order to
overcome this difficulty, some of the gaps (B to C in Fig.
64 | P a g e
24.11) are shunted by a resistance.
Under normal conditions, the point B is at earth potential and the
normal supply voltage is unable to break down the series gaps.
On the occurrence of an overvoltage, the breakdown of series
gaps A to B occurs. The heavy current after breakdown will
choose the straight - through path to earth via the shunted gaps B
and C, instead of the alternative path through the shunt
resistance. When the surge is over, the arcs B to C go out and
any power current following the surge is limited by the two
resistances (shunt resistance and series resistance) which are
now in series.
d)Expulsion type arrester. This type of arrester is also called
‘protector tube’ and is commonly used on system operating at
voltages upto 33 kV. It essentially consists of a rod gap A A in
series with a second gap enclosed within the fibre tube. The
gap in the fibre tube is formed by two electrodes. The upper
electrode is connected to rod gap and the lower electrode to
the earth. One expulsion arrester is placed under each line
conductor shows the installation of expulsion arrester on an
overhead line.
On the occurrence of an overvoltage on the line, the series gap
A A is spanned and an arc is struck between the electrodes in
the tube. The heat of the arc vaporizes some of the fibre of
tube walls, resulting in the production of a neutral gas*. In an
extremely short time, the gas builds up high pressure and is
expelled through the lower electrode which is hollow. As the
gas leaves the tube violently, it carries away ionized air around
the arc. This deionizing effect is generally so strong that arc
goes out at a current zero and will not be re-established.
Advantages
i. They are not very expensive.
ii. They are improved form of rod gap arresters as they
block the flow of power frequency follow currents.
iii. They can be easily installed
Limitations
i. An expulsion type arrester can perform only limited
number of operations as during each operation some
BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
 of the fibre material is used up.
ii. This type of arrester cannot be mounted in an
enclosed equipment due to the discharge of gases
during operation.
iii. Due to the poor volt/amp characteristic of the arrester,
it is not suitable for the protection of expensive
equipment.
e:Valve type arrester. Valve type arresters incorporate non-
linear resistors and are extensively used on systems operating
at high voltages. Fig. 24.13 (i) shows the various parts of a
valve type arrester. It consists of two assemblies (i) series
spark gaps and (ii) non-linear resistor discs (made of material
such as thyrite or metrosil) in series. The non-linear elements
are connected in series with the spark gaps. Both the
assemblies are accommodated in tight porcelain container.
i)The spark gap is a multiple assembly consisting of a number
of identical spark gaps in series. Each gap consists of two
electrodes with a fixed gap spacing. The voltage distribution
across the gaps is linearized by means of additional resistance
elements (called grading resistors) across the gaps. The
spacing of the series gaps is such that it will withstand the
normal circuit voltage. However, an overvoltage will cause the
gap to breakdown, causing the surge current to ground via the
non-linear resistors.
ii)The non-linear resistor discs are made of an inorganic
compound such as Thyrite or Metrosil. These discs are
connected in series. The non-linear resistors have the property
of offering a high resistance to current flow when normal
system voltage is applied, but a low resis- tance to the flow of
high-surge currents. In other words, the resistance of these
non-linear elements decreases with the increase in current
through them and vice-versa.
Advantages
i. They provide very effective protection (especially for
transformers and cables) against surges.
ii. They operate very rapidly taking less than a second.
iii. The impulse ratio is practically unity.
Limitations
They may fail to check the surges of very steep wave front
from reaching the terminal apparatus. This calls for additional
steps to check steep-fronted waves.
Limitation
Their performance is adversely affected by the entry of
moisture into the enclosure. This necessitates effective sealing
of the enclosure at all times.
65 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Surge Absorber
The travelling waves set up on the transmission lines by the
surges may reach the terminals apparatus and cause damage to
it. The amount of damage caused not only depends upon the
amplitude of the surge but also upon the steepness of its wave
front. The steeper the wave front of the surge, the more the
damage caused to the equipment. In order to reduce the
steepness of the wave front of a surge, we generally use surge
absorber.
A surge absorber is a protective device which reduces the
steepness of wave front of a surge by absorbing surge energy.
Although both surge diverter and surge absorber eliminate the
surge, the manner in which it is done is different in the two
devices. The surge diverter diverts the surge to earth but the
surge absorber absorbs the surge energy. A few cases of surge
absorption are dis cussed below.
i)A condenser connected between the line and earth can act as
a surge absorber. Shows how a capacitor acts as surge
absorber to protect the transformer winding. Since the
reactance of a condenser is inversely proportional to
frequency, it will be low at high frequency and high at low
frequency. Since the surges are of high frequency, the
capacitor acts as a short circuit and passes them directly to
earth. However, for power frequency, the reactance of the
capacitor is very high and practically no current flows to the
ground.
ii)Another type of surge absorber consists of a parallel
combination of choke and resistance connected in series with
the line as shown in .The choke offers high reactance to surge
frequencies ( XL = 2 f L). The surges are, therefore, forced
to flow through the resistance R where they are dissipated.
iii) Another type of surge absorber. It is called Ferranti surge
absorber. It consists of an air cored inductor connected in
series with the line. The inductor is surrounded by but
insulated from an earthed metallic sheet called dissipator. This
arrangement is equivalent to a transformer with short-circuited
secondary. The inductor forms the primary whereas the dissipator
forms the short-circuited secondary. The energy of the surge is
used up in the form of heat generated in the dissipater due to
transformer action. This type of surge absorber is mainly used
for the protection of trasformers
 Quiz
1: With an aid of Circuit diagram, describe the action of
Peterson coil in minimizing arcing current.

Example
A 3∅ , 33kv, 50Hz , 0.1H line has a capacitance to earth of
0.4𝝁F . Negleting power loss in the coil, calculate the
inductance and KVA rating of a correctly tuned coil
Sln
1
L= 2
3𝜔 𝐶
1
L= = 8.44H
Non – linear surge Diverter 3(2𝜋 𝑥50)2 𝑥0.4 𝑥 10−6
𝟑𝟑 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟑
DRAW 𝑉𝑝ℎ = = 19.0kV
√3
A stack of discs is connected between each line and earth 𝑉𝑃
close to transformer or other plant to be protected. The disc 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿 = = 3𝑉𝑝 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐿
𝑉 19.05
has anon-linera characteristics as shown above. 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑃 = = 7.18
A
𝜔𝐿 2𝜋𝑥50 𝑥 8.44
-It consist of multiple spark gap/assembly in series with KVA rating = 19.05 x 7.18 = 136.87kVA
resistor element of non linear voltage ampere characteristics.
The spark gap leaves the circuit open between the line and the Example
earth under normal conditions. 2a)Define the following with respect to overhead
When the voltage is high enough,to endanger the equipment,
transmission lines
isolation appears across the terminals of the diverter, the air-
i)Crest (1mk) KNEC
gap sparks over and the current is discharged to the earth
through the resistor which offers small resistance. O/N 2022
It is the maximum amplitude of the wave and is usually
Penterson coil expressed in kV or kVA

ii)Front (1mk)
It is the position of wave before the crest and expressed from
the beginning of the wave to the crest value in milliseconds or
micro seconds

b)A three phase transmission line has conductors of

diameter 3cm,spaced 2m apart in an equilateral
When an arcing ground fault occurs at one line as shown in formation. A voltage wave of 11kV travels along the lines.
figure (a) above, the fault connects the penterson coil across Determine the:
the blue phase winding causing a current 𝐼𝐿 to flow in the coil. i)Inductance per unit length (2mks)
Assume that the coil has negligible resistance , 𝐼𝐿 must lag 𝑉𝐵 sln
𝑑
by 900 as shown in figure (b). As 𝐼𝐿 neutrally equal to 𝐼𝑓 Inductance per unit length L = 2𝑥10−7 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 H/m
𝑟1
tuning the reactor, appropriately, then the arcing current is the 3
D equivalent = √𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3
phasor sum of 𝐼𝐿 and 𝐼𝑓 3
D equivalent = √2 𝑥 2 𝑥2 = 2
Arcing current = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑓
𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.7788 xr =0.7788 x0.15 = 0.011682
200
Let the appropriate inductance of the penterson coil be equal L = 2𝑥10−7 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 1.028𝑥10−6 H/m
0.01182
to L Henry
𝑉
𝐼𝐿 = √3𝐿 ii)Capacitance per unit length (2mks)
𝜔𝐿 Sln
1
L= 𝟐𝝅𝜺 𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 –𝟗 𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 –𝟗
3𝜔2 𝐶 C per unit length = 𝑑 F/m = 𝑑 = 200
𝑋𝐶 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑋𝐿 = Ω 𝑟 𝑟 1.5
3
3𝑉𝑝 = 1.136𝑥10−11 F/m
𝐼𝐶 = 3I = 1 = 3𝑉𝑝 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐶
Where 𝐼𝐶 = resistance charging current iii)Natural impedance (2mks)
I = Charging current of line to ground of one phase. 𝐿 1.028𝑥10−6
𝑉 𝑍𝑛 = √ = √ = 300.82Ω
1.136𝑥10−11
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑃 𝐶
𝜔𝐿
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝑃 iv)line current (2mks)
= 3𝑉𝑝 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐿 Sln
𝑉𝑝 1
L= = 𝑽 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
3𝑉𝑝 𝜔2 𝐶 3𝜔2 𝐶 Line current = But , 𝑽𝒑𝒉 = = 635V0.85
𝑍𝑛 √𝟑
1
Therefore L = 𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟎.𝟖𝟓
3𝜔2 𝐶 Line current = = 21.11A
300.82

66 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775