Transmission and Distribution

EEE-471
Limitations of HVAC Transmission:
1. Reactive Loss and Drop
For ac transmission, there are lagging reactive VA loss and leading
reactive VA loss due to L & C of the line and the transmission would be
economical if these two losses balance each other at all points along
the line. This happens when the load is terminated with characteristic
impedance of the line. However, it is not possible to operate the line at
characteristic load conditions all the time. Thus this causes reactive
loss in the line. Reactive drop in the line due to L & C is also significant
in case of ac transmission.
2. Stability
The power transmitted over a line of reactance X per phase is,
Vs Vr
P=
sin
X
Maximum steady state power occurs when, =90 .
Considering transient condition, is not generally more than

30

for efficient stable operation of the system.

Stability considerations impose serious limits on the distance of power
transmission over ac lines. For dc transmission problem of stability
doesnt arise.
3. Current Carrying Capacity
In ac transmission, current carrying capacity is reduced due to
charging current. This charging current is appreciably high for
underground cables. This charging current may be as high as 10A per
Km for 400 KV cable. The length of the cable for which the cable
charging current becomes equal to the thermal current limit is known
as critical length and limits the distance of power transmission.
4. Ferranti Effect
The rise of receiving end voltage under leading VA on the line at no
load may be serious and limits the distance of power transmission over
ac lines.
Advantages of HVDC Transmission:
1. In case of dc transmission, only two conductors are needed for single
line. Using earth return, only one conductor is enough and with two
conductors and earth return, the capacity of the line is doubled. In case

2.
3.

4.

5.
6.

7.

of ac transmission, at least three conductors are necessary and for

double circuit, six conductors would be necessary.
High voltage dc line needs less space compared to ac line of the same
voltage and size. This reduces space to be maintained.
The electrical field strength at the surface of conductor can be 50%
higher on overhead lines and about three times higher on cables in
case of ac as compared to dc. Thus dc cables are less expensive than
ac cables.
There is no need to maintain synchronism between two ac systems
connected together by a dc link. If transmission is interrupted due to
voltage drop or any other fault, it is reestablished after clearance of
fault irrespective of synchronism.
Power flow through dc lines can be easily controlled via grid control of
the values.
Terminals & lines can be built in stages. Dc line voltage can be
increased gradually by stepwise installation of increased number of
conductors and power capacity of the dc link will also increase
accordingly.
Two ac power systems having different frequencies can be linked up
together by means of HVDC link.

Limitations of HVDC:
1. Cost of terminal equipment is high. The voltage and power to be
transmitted should be high to justify the choice economically.
2. There is possibility of considerable distortion in the waveforms of ac
voltage by use of HVDC link. Special filters would be necessary in the
terminal equipment on either side of HVDC.
3. DC links blocks transmission of reactive kVA load. The receiving end
network must be capable of supplying the whole of reactive
component of power required by the loads and the inverter.
4. DC line is restricted to point to point transmission.
Kinds of DC Links:
Dc lines are classified as
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Mono-polar
Bi-polar
Homo-polar

In mono-polar line, only one conductor is used and earth is used as return
path.

Bi-polar lines have two conductors. One operating with +(ve) polarity and the
other with (ve) polarity. There are two converters of equal voltage ratings &
connected in series at each end of the dc line. The junction of the converters
may be grounded at one end or at both ends. If it is grounded at both ends,
each line can be operated individually.

Fig: Mono-polar

Fig: Bi-polar

Fig: Homo-polar

Power flow in HVDC transmission line:

RL is the line resistance. Rer &Rci are the resistance of converter & rectifier
respectively. The current in the line is given by,
Rcr + RL+ R
V cos V oi cos
I d=

ci

Internal voltage can be controlled by any or both of the following methods.

(a)
(b)

Grid Control
Tap-change Control

Rectification:

The average value of dc for n-phase is given by,

V o=

1
2
n

+
2 n

V m sind

2 n

V m sin ( )
n

n
For 3- , n=3,

V m sin ( )
3
V o=

V o=

3 V m 3
2

For 6- , n=6,

V m sin ( )
6
V o=

6
V o=
3-

3V m

Bridge Rectifier:

Fig: 3-
The output voltage for n-phase is,

V max sin ( )
n
V o=

n
In this case,
V max = 3V m
For n=6,

V o=

3 V m sin ( )

3 3

6
Vm

Inversion:

Bridge Rectifier

Explanation of d transmission advantages by math formulae:

Pac =

E 1 E2
sin
X

Pdc =

E d 1E d 2
Ed 2
V dR

Where,

Ed 1Ed 2

can be varied easily and effectively than

Power per Conductor:

Pdc =V d I d
Pac =V a I a cos
Where,
Ia
I
, d

are currents per conductor and

V d = 2V a I a I d
Pd
V d Id
=
Pa V d
I cos
2 d

E1 , E 2

2
cos

Since,

s 1

, power per conductor in case of dc is more than ac.

Power per Circuit:

Let us compare power transmission capabilities of a 3-phase single circuit
line and a bi-polar line.
Pd =2 dP a=3 a
Where,

d a

are power transmitted per conductor of dc & ac lines

respectively.
P d 2 d
2V d I d
2V d Id
2 2
2.828
=
=
=
= =
P a 3 a 3 V a I a cos
V
3 cos 3 cos
3 d I d cos
2

Since,

s 1

, power transmission capability of bi-polar line is the same as

that of three phase single circuit line.

No Stability Problem:
As we know,
Pac =

E 1 E2
sin
X

Therefore, higher the value of X, lower will be capability to transmit power

and also increase of angle which means less stability.
Voltage Control:
Practically, all equipments in the power system are designed to operate
satisfactory when the voltage level on the system corresponds to their rated
voltage or at the most the voltage variations are within 5 . When power is
supplied to a load through a transmission line keeping sending end voltage
constant, the receiving end voltage undergoes variations depending on the
load. The voltage variation at a node is an indication of an unbalance
between the reactive power generated and consumed by that node. If

reactive power generated is greater than consumed, the voltage goes up and
vice-versa. To understand the problem, refer to following figure,

V 2=V 1IZ

Again, V 1 I =P jQ

I=

If

V1

(assuming inductive load)

P jQ

V1

V 1=V 1

is reference, then

V 2 =V 1

P jQ
Q
P
X = V 1 X j
X
V1
V1
V1

The vector diagram is shown in the following figure,

From the vector diagram, it is evident that

real component of load

is directly subtracted from

sending end voltage

V1

V2

as it is normal to
V1

is not affected much due to

V1

. In order to keep

, the drop

Q
X
V1

, but the drop due to

V2

fixed for a particular

must be remain constant. Since

the only variable quantity is Q; so,

V2

may be controlled by adjusting Q or

var.
Methods of Voltage Control:
Voltage is controlled by,
(i)
Series capacitor
(ii)
Shunt capacitor
(iii)
Synchronous capacitor
(iv)
Tap-changing transformer
(v)
Booster transformer
(I) Static Capacitor:
If a static capacitor is connected in series with the line, it reduces the
inductive reactance between the load and the supply point and the voltage
drop is approximated by,
IRcos r + I ( X L X C ) sin r
In practice,

XC

can be so chosen that the factor

negative and numerically equal to

Rcos r

Booster Transformer:

Fig: Booster Transformer

Tap-changing Transformer:

( X L X C ) sin r becomes

Fig: Tap-Changing Transformer