CHAPTER : CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Sub. : Physics II Marks : 4 .

Que. State and explain the Kirchoff’s law for an electrical network.
Ans.: Kirchoff’s laws for electrical network:
I) Kirchoff’s Ist law (Current law):
The algebric sum of electric current at any junction is equal to zero.
i.e. ∑ 𝐼 = 0
Sign Conventions: The currents approaching the junction are taken as +ve
while the currents leaving the junction are taken as –ve.

Consider the junction A in the electric network as shown above. By

the sign convenion 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 and 𝐼7 are positive while 𝐼4 , 𝐼5 and 𝐼6 are negative.
 According to Kirchoff’s 1st law, 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 − 𝐼6 + 𝐼7 = 0 i.e.
∑𝐼 = 0
II) Kirchoff’s IInd law (Voltage law):
The algebric sum of the emf of all the cells in closed circuit plus algebric sum of
potential difference across each resistance in that closed circuit is equal to zero.
i.e. ∑ 𝐸 + ∑ 𝐼𝑅 = 0
Sign conventions:
i) The emf of cell is taken as +ve if it tends to send current
in a direction in which the circuit is traced or travarsed
otherwise the emf of cell is −ve.
ii) The currents which are flowing in a direction in which
circuit is traversed then potential difference across
resistance is taken as negative otherwise positive.
Let us consider a closed circuit ABCDEFA as shown
−𝐼1 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 𝑅4 − 𝐸2 + 𝐼2 𝑅5 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐸1 = 0
 −𝐼1 (𝑅2 + 𝑅1 ) + 𝐼2 (𝑅4 + 𝑅5 ) = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 --------------------- (I)
For the loop ‘ABEFA’
−𝐼1 𝑅2 − (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )𝑅3 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐸1 = 0
 𝐼1 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) + 𝐼2 𝑅3 = 𝐸1 --------------------- (II)
For the loop ‘BCDEB’
𝐼2 𝑅4 + 𝐼2 𝑅5 + (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )𝑅3 − 𝐸2 = 0
 𝐼1 𝑅3 + 𝐼2 (𝑅3 + 𝑅4 + 𝑅5 ) = 𝐸2 --------------------- (III)
Solving these eqn. I, II, III the current through any branch of closed circuit can be
determined.
Que. What is Wheatstones network? With the help of neat circuit diagram explain
Wheatstones network and obtain balancing condition.
Ans.: Wheatstone’s network: “A simple circuit devised
by Wheatstone, for the determination of unknown
resistance is called as Wheatstone’s network”. It consists
of four resistances 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 connected to form a
closed circuit A, B, C, D.
If the cell is connected between two diametrically
opposite junctions A and C, there must be a point D along
the branch ADC whose potential is same as that of the
point B, along ABC. If galvanometer is connected between
equipotential points B and D. It will not show any
deflection. In such a case, the network is said to be
balanced and galvanometer is said to show null deflection.
The balancing condition for Wheatstones network
𝑅 𝑅
is given by, 𝑅1 = 𝑅3
2 4
Let I → be the current supplied by cell and it gets divided at point A as 𝐼1 along 𝑅1 and 𝐼2 along
𝑅3 . If the network is balanced, 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 flows through 𝑅2 and 𝑅4 respectively.
• Using Ohm’s law:
Let 𝑉𝐴 , 𝑉𝐵 , 𝑉𝐶 , 𝑉𝐷 be the potentials at the points A, B, C, D respectively. In the balanced
condition, potential at B is equal to potential at D
 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐷

𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐷 --------------- (I)

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐶 --------------- (II)

But according to Ohm’s law,

𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝐼1 𝑅1

𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐷 = 𝐼2 𝑅3
--------------- (III)
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼1 𝑅2

𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼2 𝑅4

Using eqn. (III) in I and II

𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅3 --------------- (IV)

𝐼1 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 --------------- (V)

Dividing eqn. (IV) by (V)

𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
This is balancing condition for Wheatstone’s network.
• Using Kirchhoff’s law:
 Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop ‘ABGDA’
−𝐼1 𝑅1 + 0 × 𝐺 + 𝐼2 𝑅3 = 0
 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅3 ------------------ (I)
Similarly applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop ‘BCDGB’
−𝐼1 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 𝑅4 + 0 × 𝐺 = 0
 𝐼1 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 ------------------ (II)
Dividing eqn. (I) by (II)

𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
This is balancing condition for Wheatstone’s network.
Que. Describe the practical form of Wheatstones bridge and explain how it can be used
to determine unknown resistance. What are the main sources of error in Wheatstones
meter bridge experiment? How are they minimised?
Ans.: Wheatstones meter bridge:
Defn.: The practical form of Wheatstone’s network is called as Wheatstone’s meterbridge. It
consist of one meter long, thin uniform conducting wire AC stretched between two thick copper
strips bent at right angle fixed on a wooden board. A third copper strip is fixed on wooden
board, so as to form two gaps within two copper strips.

The unknown resistance X is connected in the left gap of meterbridge and resistance
box ‘R’ is connected in right gap of meterbridge A galvanometer ‘G’ is connected between the
jockey and the junction B of X and R. A cell, key and rheostat are connected in series with the
wire AC.
The suitable resistance ‘R’ is taken from resistance box and by closing the key current
is sent through wire AC. Now jockey is touched to the different points of bridge wire AC and
a point of contact ‘D’ at which the galvanometer shows null deflection is determined.
Let, 𝐿𝑥 → be the distance of null-point from left end.
𝐿𝑅 → be the distance of null-point from right end.
Then according to the principle of Wheatstone’s network balanced condition for
Wheatstone’s network ≡
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4

𝑋 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿𝑥

 ≡
𝑅 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿𝑅
 Let 𝜎 be the resistance per unit length of wire.

𝑋 𝜎𝐿𝑥
≡
𝑅 𝜎𝐿𝑅

𝑋 𝐿𝑥
 ≡
𝑅 𝐿𝑅

 𝑅 ∙ 𝐿𝑥
𝑋 ≡
𝐿𝑅
Using this relation the unknown resistance can be determined by Wheatstone’s bridge.
Sources of errors:
Error is introduced in determination of unknown resistance due to following reasons.
1) If the wire is not uniform.
2) Due to contact resistance.
3) Two ends of wire may not exactly coincide with O and 100 cm marks on meter scale
respectively.
The error introduced in determination of unknown resistance can be minimized as
below,
1) By interchanging positions at X and R and experiment is repeated.
2) The value of ‘R’ is so selected that the null point is obtained as near the centre of bridge
wire as possible.
Que. Describe Kelvin’s method for the determination of resistance of galvanometer.
Ans.: The electrical circuit of Kelvin’s method of determination of unknown resistance of
galvanometer is shown below

Galvanometer G whose unknown resistance is to be determined is connected in the left

gap while resistance box R is connected in right gap of meterbridge. Junction B of G and R is
connected to jockey. A cell, key, rheostat are connected in series with wire AC.
A suitable resistance R is taken from resistance box. By closing the key, current is sent
through wire AC and without touching jocky the deflection in galvanometer is noted.
Now, by touching jockey to different points of wire, a point of contact ‘D’ for which
galvanometer shows same deflection on as before is determined.
Let, LG → be the distance of D, from left hand
LR → be the distance of D, from right hand
Then according to the principle of Wheatstone’s network
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4

𝐺 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝐺
 ≡
𝑅 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑅

Let 𝜎 be the resistance / unit length of wire.

𝐺 𝜎𝐿𝐺
≡
𝑅 𝜎𝐿𝑅

𝐺 𝐿𝐺
 ≡
𝑅 𝐿𝑅

𝑅 ∙ 𝐿𝐺
 𝐺 ≡
𝐿𝑅
Using the relation, the unknown resistance of galvanometer is determined.
Sources of error:
The errors introduced in determination of resistance of galvanometer are due to
1) If wire is not uniform.
2) Due to contact resistances
3) Two ends of wire may not exactly coinside with 0-100 cm marks of meter scale.
The errors introduced in determination of unknown resistance of galvanometer can be
minimized.
1) By interchanging the positions at G and R and experiment is repeated.
2) The value of R is so selected that equal deflection point is obtained as near the centre
as possible.
Que. What is potentiometer? State the principle of it. Explain the principle of
potentiometer. What is potential gradient.
Ans.: Potentiometer: It consist of several meter
long thin, uniform conducting wire stretched
between two points A and B on a wooden board.
Suppose that a battery of constant emf E
and key K are connected across potentiometer
wire AB.
Let L → length of potentiometer wire AB
𝜎 → resistance per unit length of wire
Then, the resistance (R) of potentiometer wire AB
is given by
𝑅
𝜎=  𝑅 = 𝜎𝐿 ------------ (I)
𝐿
Let I → current flowing through potentiometer wire ≡
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅
𝐸
𝐼= ------------ (II)
𝜎𝐿
Let P → be any point on potentiometer wire AB and
𝑙 → be the length of wire AP
The resistance r of wire of length AP ≡
𝑟
𝜎=
𝑙
𝑟 = 𝜎𝑙 ------------- (III)
Let 𝑉𝐴𝑃 → be the P.D. between points A and P
𝑉𝐴𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟
𝑉𝐴𝑃 = 𝐼𝜎𝑙
𝐸
𝑉𝐴𝑃 = 𝜎𝐿 × 𝜎𝑙
𝐸
= ( )𝑙
𝐿
But E and L are constant.
 𝑉𝐴𝑃 ∝ 𝑙
Thus, P.D. between any two points of potentiometer wire is directly proportional to length of
wire between those points.
This is principle of potentiometer.
Potential Gradient: Potential drop / unit length of potentiometer wire is called potential
gradient.
𝑉𝐴𝑃 = 𝐼𝜎𝑙  𝑙=1
𝐸 𝑉
Potential gradient = 𝐼𝜎 = =
𝐿 𝐿
Que. Explain the use of potentiometer to compare emf of two cells by separately method.
Derive necessary formula.
Ans.: Potentiometer consist of several metre long
thin uniform conducting wire stretched between
two points on wooden board.
An electrical circuit for comparison of emf
of two cell is shown,
A battery of sufficiently large emf ‘E’, key
‘K’ and reheostat Rh are connected in series with
wire AB.
Let 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 be the emf of two cell to be
compared. +ve terminal of cell of emf 𝐸1 is
connected to the end A to which +ve terminal of
battery is connected. The –ve terminal of cell is
connected through galvanometer to the jokey.
Now by closing key ‘K’ current is sent through wire AB and by touching jockey to
different points of the wire, a point of contact P for which galvanometer shows null-deflection
is determined.
Let 𝑙1 − distance of null point P from end A
𝜎 − be the resistance per unit length of wire
𝐼 = current flowing through wire AB
Then, emf of cell = P.D. across wire and length 𝑙1
 = P.D. gradient × length
𝐸1 = 𝐼𝜎𝑙1 --------------- (I)
Now, cell of emf 𝐸1 is replaced by another cell of emf 𝐸2 and null point is determined as
before.
Let 𝑙2 − be the distance of null-point from end A
Then, 𝐸2 = 𝐼𝜎𝑙2 --------------- (II)
Dividing eqn. (I) by (II),
𝐸1 𝐼𝜎𝑙1
=
𝐸2 𝐼𝜎𝑙2
𝐸1 𝑙1
 =
𝐸2 𝑙2
Using this relation, the emf of two cells compared by potentiometer.
Que. Describe sum and difference method for comparision at emf of two cells by
potentiometer.
Ans.: Potentiometer consist of several meter long, thin uniform, conducting wire AB,
stretched between two points on wooden board, Battery of sufficiently large emf E, key K and
rheostat Rh are connected in series with wire AB.

Let 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 be the emf of two cells to be compared.

Part I:
Now both the cells are connected such that they assist each other and their combined
emf is 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 . The +ve terminal of combination is connected to end A, to which +ve terminal
of battery is connected while −ve terminal is connected through galvanometer to jockey.
By closing key ‘K’ current is sent through wire AB and jockey is touched to different
points of potentiometer wire and point of contact P. for which galvanometer shows null-
deflection is determined.
Let 𝐿1 → distance of null point P from end A
𝜎 → resistance per unit length of wire
𝐼 → current through wire AB
Then, combined emf = P.D. across of length 𝐿1
𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐼𝜎𝐿1 ---------------- (I)
Part II:
Now both cells connected such that they oppose each other, so that, their combined emf
is 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 . The null point is determined once again as before.
Let 𝐿2 → be the distance of null point from end A
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 𝐼𝜎𝐿2 ---------------- (II)
From I and II
𝐸1 +𝐸2 𝐿1
=
𝐸1 −𝐸2 𝐿2
By compondendo and dividendo,
𝐸1 +𝐸2 +𝐸1 −𝐸2 𝐿1 +𝐿2
=
𝐸1 +𝐸2 −𝐸1 +𝐸2 𝐿1 −𝐿2

𝐸1 𝐿1 +𝐿2
=
𝐸2 𝐿1 −𝐿2
Using this eqn. the emf of two cell can be compared.
Que. State the precautions which must be taken while performing potentiometer
experiment.
Ans.: The following precautions must be taken while performing potentiometer experiment.
1) The +ve terminal of the cells whose emf is to be compared must be connected to the
end to which +ve terminal of battery is connected.
2) The emf of cells to be compared must be less than emf of battery. In sum and difference
method, the sum of emf of two cell must be less than emf of battery.
3) The potentiometer wire must be uniformed.
4) The resistance of potentiometer should be high.
Que. Describe the use of potentiometer to determine internal resistance of cell.
Ans.: The electrical circuit for determination of internal
resistance of cell by potentiometer is shown in figure
A battery of sufficiently large emf of 𝐸, key K and
rheostat Rh are connected in series with wire AB. A cell of
emf 𝐸1 and internal resistance r is taken and it’s +ve
terminal is connected to end A to which +ve terminal of
battery is connected. The –ve terminal of cell is connected
through galvanometer to jockey. Resistances box R and
key 𝐾1 are connected across cell.

1) Initially by closing the key 𝐾 current is sent through

wire AB and by touching jockey to different points of
wire AB, a null point P is determined.
Let 𝑙1 → be the distance of null point from end A.
Then, 𝐸1 = 𝐼𝜎𝑙1 ----------------- (I)
Where 𝐼 − current through wire AB, 𝜎 − resistance / unit
length of wire.
2) Now both keys 𝐾 and 𝐾1 are closed and null-point is
determined once again as before. In this case current flows through the cell.
Let 𝑙2 → be the distance of null point from end A.
Then,
Terminal P.D. of cell = P.D. across wire of length 𝑙2

 𝑉 = 𝐼𝜎𝑙2 ----------------- (II)

Dividing eqn. (I) by (II)

𝐸1 𝐼𝜎𝑙1
=
𝑉 𝐼𝜎𝑙2

𝐸1 𝑙1
 = ----------------- (III)
𝑉 𝑙2
 By applying Ohm’s law to complete circuit gives

𝐸1
𝐼1 = ----------------- (IV)
𝑅+𝑟
Where, 𝐼1 → current flowing through the cell. But according to Ohm’s law
𝑉
𝐼1 = ----------------- (V)
𝑅
Comparing eqn. (IV) and (V)

𝐸1 𝑉
=
𝑅+𝑟 𝑅
𝐸1 𝑅+𝑟
 = ----------------- (VI)
𝑉 𝑅
Comparing eqn. (III) and (VI)

𝑙1 𝑅+𝑟
=
𝑙2 𝑅

 (𝑅 + 𝑟)𝑙2 = 𝑙1 ∙ 𝑅

 𝑅𝑙2 + 𝑟𝑙2 = 𝑙1 ∙ 𝑅

 𝑟𝑙2 = 𝑅𝑙1 − 𝑅𝑙2

 𝑟𝑙2 = 𝑅(𝑙1 − 𝑙2 )

𝑙1 − 𝑙2
 𝑟 = 𝑅( )
𝑙2

Using this relation the internal resistance of cell can be determined by potentiometer.
Que. Distinguish between potentiometer and voltmeter.

Potentiometer Voltmeter

1) It can measure emf terminal P.D., internal 1) It can measure terminal P.D. of cell only.
resistance of cell
2) Accuracy of voltmeter is less.
2) Accuracy at potentiometer is greater.
3) Its sensitivity is less.
3) Its sensitivity is more.
4) It can measure very small P.D. but can’t 4) It can’t measure very small P.D. but can
measure large voltages.
measure large voltages.
5) It is portable.
5) It is not portable.
6) It gives direct reading of voltage.
6) Calculations have to be done each time
for voltage is to be measured.
Que. Explain how MCG can be converted into a meter. Derive necessary formula.
Ans.: Ammeter: A MCG designed to measure current through the circuit is called ammeter.
I) To measure current through the circuit, galvanometer is required to connect in series
with circuit. Therefore, total resistance at circuit increases and current decreases. This
reduced value of current is measured by galvanometer.
II) Secondly, galvanometer give full scale deflection even when small current flows
through it.
III) Galvanometer coil is very delicate and easily gets damaged when larger current flows
through it.
All the above problems are solved by connecting a low value resistance in parallel
(called Shunt) with galvanometer coil. Thus MCG
can be converted into ammeter by connecting low
value resistance across galvanometer coil.

G → resistance of galvanometer
S → shunt (A low value resistance)
𝐼𝑔 → current flowing through
galvanometer
𝐼𝑠 → current flowing through shunt
𝐼 → current to be measured

From figure,
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑔 + 𝐼𝑠

 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 ------------ (I)

Now P.D. across galvanometer and shunt is same.

P.D. across G = P.D. across shunt

𝐼𝑔 ∙ 𝐺 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑆 ------------ (II)

𝐼𝑔 ∙ 𝐺
 𝑆 =
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔

Using this relation, the value of shunt can be determined.

Again from eqn. (II)

𝐼𝑔 ∙ 𝐺 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑆 − 𝐼𝑔 ∙ 𝑆

 𝐼𝑔 ∙ 𝑆 + 𝐼𝑔 ∙ 𝐺 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑆

 𝐼𝑔 (𝑆 + 𝐺) = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑆

𝐼∙𝑆
 𝐼𝑔 =
𝑆+𝐺
  𝐼𝑔 = ( 𝑆 ) 𝐼
𝑆+𝐺
This relation gives fraction of total current flowing through galvanometer.
Functions of Shunt Resistor:
1) It reduces the effective resistance of ammeter.
2) It increases the range of instrument.
3) It provides an alternative path for excess current, which protects galvanometer from the
damage.
Voltmeter:
Que. Explain how will you convert MCG into voltmeter. Derive the necessary formula.
Ans.: Voltmeter: A MCG designed to measure P.D. between any two points of circuit is called
as voltmeter.
I) To measure P.D. between two points of the circuit, galvanometer is required to connect
across the circuit which reduces current flowing through circuit and hence reduces P.D.
between two points of the circuit. The reduced value of P.D. is measured by
galvanometer.
II) Galvanometer gives full scale deflection even when small P.D. is applied across it and
finally.
III) MCG coil is very delicate and easily gets damaged when large P.D. is applied across it.
All the above problems are solved by connecting high value resistance in series with
the galvanometer.

Thus MCG can be converted into

voltmeter by connecting high value
resistance in series with it.
G → resistance of galvanometer
R → high value resistance
𝐼𝑔 → current flowing through
galvanometer
𝑉𝑔 → P.D. across galvanometer
𝑉𝑅 → P.D. across resistance
𝑉 → P.D. to be measured
From figure,
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑔 + 𝑉𝑅

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 ∙ 𝐺 + 𝐼𝑔 ∙ 𝑅

 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝐺 + 𝑅)

𝑅 𝑉
 = −𝐺
𝐼𝑔
Using this relation, high value resistance can be determined. In this way, MCG can be
converted into voltmeter.
Functions of high value of series resistor:
1) To increase the effective resistance of galvanometer.
2) To increase the range of voltmeter.
3) To protect the galvanometer from damage due to large current.