C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS
EXPERIMENT No. 1

CLASS-XII
Date-

Aim- To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.
Apparatus-The given resistance wire, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat, a cell or battery, one-way key, meter scale,
connecting wires.
Circuit Diagram

Formula Used
According to Ohm's law, the potential difference across the ends of 'a conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it provided the physical conditions of the conductor and its temperature remain the same. Let I be the
current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends, then
V I or V = RI or R = V/ I , where R is a constant of proportionality and is called resistance of the
conductor. It depends upon material of the wire and its dimensions (length and radius).
A graph between current I along x-axis and potential difference V along y -axis comes out to be a straight line and the
slope ( V / I ) of this line gives the value of the resistance of the given wire.
Observations
Step l. To find out range, least count and zero error of instruments :
Range of ammeter - .......... A, Least count of ammeter = .......... A
Range of Voltmeter -.......... V, Least count of voltmeter - .......... V
Zero error of the ammeter, e, =.......... A
Zero error of the voltmeter, e1 -.......... V
Step-2
Variation in potential/voltage difference V with current I
Sl.No
Ampere reading (Amp)
Voltmeter reading (in volt)
.
Observed I
Corrected I
Observed V
Corrected V
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
step 3. Length of wire,

V/I = R (in ohm)

l =..........cm.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Calculations. By choosing suitable scales, plot a graph between current I along x-axis and potential difference V
along y-axis. The graph comes out to be a straight line as shown in Fig. Determine the slope ( V / I ) of the
graph which gives the value of resistance of the given wire. Thus, R = Slope of V-I graph = ( V / I ) = BC/AC =
. .
The resistance per unit length = R/ l = . /cm.
Result- The resistance per cm of the wire by plotting graph between potential difference versus current is ........ /cm.
Precautions
l. The voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper ranges.
2. The ammeter should be connected in series and the voltmeter should be connected in parallel with their positive
terminals towards the positive pole of the battery and negative terminals towards the negative pole of the battery.
3. The length of the resistance wire should be measured from where it just comes out of the terminals of the voltmeter.
Sources of Errors
l. The resistance wire may have kinks in it.
2. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter may lie in between the marking on the scales.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

EXPERIMENT No. 2

Date-

Aim- To find resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of its material.
Appparatus-Meter bridge, resistance wire (length about 1 m) whose specific resistance is to be determined, resistance
one-way key, jockey, galvanometer, battery or eliminator. screw gauge, thick connecting wires, sand paper, etc.
Circuit Diagram

Formula Used

R
( 100l
l )

(i) The unknown resistance X, according to theory of meter bridge, is given by X =

, where R is

known resistance (from resistance box) in the left gap and X is unknown resistance in the right gap;
is the length of the wire of the meter bridge from the zero end I upto the null point D.
2

(ii) The specific resistance of the material of a given wire is given by =

( )

d
X
4l

, where

l (in cm)

l is the length of

the wire and d is diameter of the wire having resistance X.

Observations
Step-1 To find (unknown) resistance X of the given wire.
S.No
.

Resistance from
resistance box R (ohm)

Length
AD = l
(cm)

Length
DC = (100(cm)

l )

X=

R
( 100l
l )

(ohm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean value of X = . ohm
Step 2. Length of the given wire, L= ... cm.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

Step 3 Least count of screw gauge = .

Zero error if any
= ..

CLASS-XII

mm
mm (with sign)

Step 4Sl.No
.

Main scale
reading (mm)

Circular scale reading (mm)

Division
coinciding

Value =
division x L.C.

Observed diameter (mm)

Observed I

Mean diameter
(mm)

Corrected I

1.
2.
3.
Calculations
The specific resistance of the material of the given wire is given by by =

d2
X
4l

( )

= . cm = .m

Standard value (from tables) of specific resistance, 0 = m

Percentage error =

x100= .%

Result
1. The resistance of the given wire, X: ......... .
2. The specific resistance of the material of given wire, = ... m
Precautions
1. All the brass plugs of the resistance box should be made tight by giving them screw motion.
2. The jockey should be made to slide gently on the wire of the meter bridge. It should not be pressed hard on the wire
otherwise it may change uniformity of the wire.
3. The balance point should lie near the middle of the wire of the meter bridge. so as to minimize error due to end
resistances.
4. The resistance wire (whose resistance is to be determined) should not make a loop or touch at certain points.
Causes of Error
1. The wire of the meter bridge may not have uniform area of cross-section throughout its entire length.
2. The wire of meter bridge may get heated up due to passage of electric current, thus, changing resistance of the wire.
3. Backlash error may be present in the screw gauge due to loose fitting of the screw.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

EXPERIMENT No. 3

Date-

Aim- To verify the laws of combination (series/parallel) of resistances using a meter bridge.
Apparatus-A meter bridge or slide wire bridge, two resistance coils, resistance box, one-way key, jockey, battery or
battery eliminator, connecting wires and sand paper.
Circuit Diagram

Formula Used

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII
R
( 100l
l )

(i) The resistance of a wire for resistance coil using meter bridge is given by r =

, where

l is length

of the meter bridge wire from the zero end upto null point and R is the resistance from resistance box
(ii) When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in series, their combined resistance is given by rs = r1 + r2
(iii) When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in parallel, their combined resistance is given by rp =

r1 r2
r 1+r 2

Observations
Resistance
coil

S.No.

Resistance
from
resistance box
(R) (ohm)

Balancing
length
AD = l
(cm)

length
DC =

100l
l

Resistance

100l
l

r=

(ohm)

Mean resistance
(ohm)

(cm)
r1
r2
r1 and r2 in
series
r1 and r2 in
parallel

1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.

r1
r2
rs
rp

Calculations and Verification of Laws

(a) Verification of the law of resistances in series.
Mean value of r1 = ..ohm, Mean value of r2 = ..ohm
Mean value of (r1 + r2) = ..ohm,
Mean value of rs = ..ohm
Within experimental errors, rs = (r1 + r2). Therefore, the law of resistances in series is verified.
(b) Verification of the law of resistances in parallel :
Mean value of r1 = ..ohm, Mean value of r2 = ..ohm
Mean value of

r1 r2
r 1+r 2

= ..ohm, Mean value of rp = ..ohm

Result(i) Within experimental errors, rs = (r1 + r2). Therefore, the law of combination of resistances in series stands verified.
(ii) Within experimental errors, rp =

r1 r2
,. Therefore, the law of combination of resistances in parallel stands
r 1+r 2

verified.
Precautions
1. All the brass plugs of the resistance box should be made tight by giving them screw motion.
2. The jockey should be made to slide gently on the wire of the meter bridge. It should not be pressed hard on the wire
otherwise it may change uniformity of the wire.
3. The balance point should lie near the middle of the wire of the meter bridge. so as to minimize error due to end
resistances.
4. The key K in the battery circuit should remain inserted only when observations are to be taken and then the key
should be taken out to avoid unnecessary heating of the resistance wire of the meter bridge.
5. The resistance wire (whose resistance is to be determined) should not make a loop or touch at certain points.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Causes of Error
1. The wire of the meter bridge may not have uniform area of cross-section throughout its entire length.
2. The wire of meter bridge may get heated up due to passage of electric current, thus, changing resistance of the wire.
3. Backlash error may be present in the screw gauge due to loose fitting of the screw.

EXPERIMENT No. 4

Date-

Aim-To compare the emf of two given primary cells (Daniell cell and Leclanche cell) using potentiometer.
Apparatus- Potentiometer, Daniell cell, Leclanche cell, ammeter, voltmeter, galvanometer, battery, or batteryeliminator, rheostat, resistance box, one-way key, two-way key, jockey, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
Circuit Diagram

Formula used
Let l 1 and l 2 be the balancing lengths of the potentiometer wire using cells fo emfs E 1 and E2 respectively.
Then according to the principles of potentiometer, E1 = K l 1 and E2 = K l 2 where k is a constant of
proportionality. Dividing equations, we get

E1
E2

l1
l2

Observations
Step l.
'I'o determine potential differences E, E1 , and E2 .
Least count of the ammeter = ......... A
Least count of the voltmeter = ......... V
Potential difference across the battery, E = .........V
Potential difference across Leclanche cell, E1 = ......... V
Potential difference across Daniell cell, E2 = ......... V
Step 2. 'I'able for comparison of emf's of two cells.
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C.C.H.S.
Sl.No
.

Ammeter
reading
(Amp)

PHYSICS PRACTICALS
Balancing length when Leclanche
cell E1 is in the circuit l 1 (cm)

Balancing length when Daniel e

cell E2 is in the circuit l 2 (cm)

CLASS-XII
E1
E2
l1
l2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean value of E1 : E2 = .
Result- The ratio of the emfs of the given two cells using potentiometer is E1 : E2 =
Precautions
1.The current should be passed through the circuit only when observations are to be taken to avoid unnecessary
heating of the potentiometer wire.
2. The positive terminal of the auxiliary battery E , E1 , and E2 should be connected at the zero end P of the
potentiometer wire.
3. The emf of of the auxiliary battery E should be greater than the emfs of the either of the two cells.
4. The jockey should be made to slide gently along the potentiometer wire.
5. The balance point should be at large distance from the end P of the potentiometer wire preferably be on the last wire
of the potentiometer. This can be done by adjusting the sliding contact of the rheostat.
6. Some high resistance plug (say,2000 ))should be taken out from the resistance box before the jockey is moved
along the wire for the safety of the galvanometer. This plug should be inserted back which noting the accurate position
of the null point.
7. The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular set of observation.
Sources of Error
l. The potentiometer wire may not have uniform area of cross-section along its whole length.
2. The emf of the auxiliary battery may not remain constant.
3. Heating of the potentiometer wire may cause some error.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

EXPERIMENT No. 5

Date-

Aim-To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.
Apparatus- A potentiometer, a battery or battery eliminator, a rheostat, two one-way keys, a Leclanche cell, a
resistance box (0-20 ), a high resistance box, an ammeter, voltmeter, galvanometer, jockey, connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.
Circuit Diagram

Formula used -The internal resistance of a cell, using potentiometer is given by r =

l1 l 2
R
l2

( )

where R = Shunt resistance in parallel with the cell.

l 1 = Balancing length of potentiometer wire without shunt.
l 2 = Balancing length of potentiometer wire with shunt
Observations- Step-1
1. To determine the potential difference across battery/cell.
Least count of the voltmeter = .. .. . . . . . V
Potential difference across the battery = ......... V
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Potential difference across the cell =......... V

Step 2 -. Table for finding the internal resistance of a cell.
Sl.No
.

Resistance
R ()

Position of null point (cm)

Without shunt,
l 1 (key K2 is open)

. With shunt,
l 2 (key K2 is
open)

Internal resistance
r=

l1 l 2
R
l2

( )

(ohm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean internal resistance, r = .
Calculations
Substitute the values of

l 1 , l 2 and R for each set of observation in the formula r =

l1 l 2
R , and calculate
l2

( )

the value of internal resistance (R) for each set. Find the mean value of the internal resistance.
NOTE- The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the current drawn from the cell and hence on the shunt
resistance R. Since internal resistance varies with external resistance R, the mean value r should not be taken. Instead
the range of variation of r should be mentioned in the result (e.g. the internal resistance of the given cell lies between
and . .
Result- The internal resistance of a given primary cell by using a potentiometer is r = .
Precautions
1. The balancing point (without shunt) should preferably lie on the last wire which can be done by adjusting the
rheostat.
2. Freshly prepared cell should be used.
3. A high resistance (about 2000 ) should be connected in series with the galvanometer so that it may not get
damaged due to excessive current through it. First, the approximate position of the null point should be located. Then,
exact position of the null point should be obtained by replacing the plug back into the resistance box (R.B.).
Sources of Error
1. The potentiometer wire may not have uniform area of cross-section along its whole length.
2. The heating of the potentiometer wire may introduce some error.
3.. The emf of the auxiliary battery may not remain constant during the experiment.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

EXPERIMENT No. 6

Date-

Aim-To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus- A Weston type galvanometer, a cell or battery of 2V, a resistance box (0-10000 )), a resistance box (0500 ), two way keys, connecting wires and sand paper.
Circuit Diagram

Formula Used
(i) The resistance G of a galvanometer by half deflection method is given by G =
from the resistance box (R.B.) and S is shunt resistance.
(ii) The figure of merit (k) of the galvanometer is given by k = (

E
R+ G

RS
RS

where R is the resistance

, where E is emf of the cell of

battery, R is resistance from the resistance box. G is resistance of the -galvanometer and is deflection in the
galvanometer.
Graphical Method for Determination of k and G
The Eqn. (ii) can be written as

k
E

)R+

k
E

)G
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

The graph between

graph, slope =

k
E

CLASS-XII

) along y-axis and resistance along X-axis is a straight line as shown in figure. From the

) and intercept =

k
E

) G. From these relations, we get G =

Intercept
Slope

Knowing the value of emf (E) of the battery, the figure of merit (k) and galvanometer resistance (G) can be
calculated from eqs of slope and G =

Intercept
Slope

Observations
Step-1 Table for finding resistance G of the galvanometer
S.No.

Resistance
R ()

Deflection in
the
galvanometer

Half Deflection
/2

Shunt resistance
S ()

Galvanometer
resistance
G=

RS
RS

()

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean value of resistance of galvanometer, G = . .

Step 2. Table for finding the figure of merit (k )

The emf of the cell/battery E = ...... volt
Resistance of galvanometer, G =.. ohm

S.No.

Resistance
R ()

Deflection in
the
galvanometer

Figure of merit
k=

E
R+ G

(A/div)

1.
2.
3.
4.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

5.
Mean value of the figure of merit, k = . A/div.
Step 3. To find current required for producing full scale of deleflection ( I g )
Maximum number of divisions on the either side in the galvanometer, N = .
Figure of merit of galvanometer, k = ... A/div.
Current that produces full scale deflection, I s = Nk = .. A
Result
l. The resistance G of galvanometer by half deflection method is ......... .
2. The figure of merit (k) of the given galvanometer is ......... ampere/division.
3. The current (Ig ) for producing full scale deflection in the galvanometer is .. . . . .. .. ampere
Precautions
l. All the connections as well as plugs of the resistance box should be tight.
2. To avoid damage to the galvanometer, a high resistance (say, 5000 ) should be first taken out of the resistance box
R and then key K1 should be closed.
3. A freshly charged battery cell should be used so that its emf E may remain constant.
4. The plugs of the resistance box should be tight by giving them a twist.
Sources of Error
l. The plugs of resistance box may not be clean or tight.
2. The emf of the battery may not be constant.

EXPERIMENT No. 7

Date-

Aim- To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of desired range
and to verify the same.
Apparatus- A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter (range 0- 3 V), a cell, a resistance box, a one-way key, a
rheostat, connecting wires and sand paper.
Circuit Diagram (for Verification)

Formula Used
A galvanometer of known resistance G and figure of merit k can be converted into a voltmeter of range 0 V volt by

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

connecting a high resistance R in series with it. The value of resistance R is given by R =

CLASS-XII
V
Ig

- G , where V is the

range of conversion and Ig is the current required for full scale deflection.
Observations
Step l. T'o determine the value of series resistance R
Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = .........
Figure of' merit of the given galvanometer, k = ......... A/div
Total number of divisions on either side of zero mark of the galvanometer scale, N = .........
Current for full scale deflection, Ig = Nk = ......... A
Required range of the converted voltmeter, V = .........V
Required value of series resistance, R =

V
Ig

= G = ........ .

Step 2. Verification (To check up the accuracy of the converted voltmeter)

Range of converted voltmeter, V = .........V
Total number of divisions on the either side of zero mark of the galvanometer scale, N = .........
Least count of the converted voltmeter. k' =

V
N

= .. volt/division

Table for Verification

Sl.No
Galvanometer reading
Voltmeter
Error
% Error

.
reading
(V - V/)
V V
V (volt)
(volt)
Deflection
Potential difference
) x100
V
() (division) V/ =k/
(in

volt)
1.
2.
3.
4.
ResultAs the difference (V -V') is very small, therefore, the given galvanometer is properly converted into voltmeter of the
required range.
Precautions
l. The rheostat should be connected properly in the circuit so as to act as a potential divider.
2. The resistance box should be of high range (0 - 10 k).
3. Suitable high resistance (say, 5000 ) must be taken out of the resistance box before inserting the key K in the
circuit, otherwise unduly high current is likely to damage the coil of the galvanometer.
4. The standard voltmeter and the converted voltmeter should preferably of the same range.
5. Any zero error in the standard voltmeter or galvanometer should be eliminated or taken into account properly.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

EXPERIMENT No. 8

Date-..

Aim- To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.
Apparatus- An optical bench, three uprights, a lens holder, a convex lens, two needle, a metre scale and a knitting
needle
Ray Diagram

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Formula Used- The focal length f of a concave mirror is related to the object distance u and image distance v by the
formula

1 1 1
=
f v u

(Lens formula) , For a convex lens, the focal length f is positive, object distance u is

negative and (real) and image distance v is positive.

ObservationsStep-1 To determine rough focal length.
Rough focal length of the convex lens = cm
Step-2 Table for finding u, v , 1/u , 1/v
Sl.No
.

Position of upright with)

Object
needle
O (cm)

Lens L
(cm)

Image
needle I
(cm)

Observed distance
LO = u
(cm)

LI = v
(cm)

1/u
(cm-1 )

1/v
(cm-1 )

f=

uv
uv

(cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mean focal length of convex lens, f = cm
Calculations 1.

f=

uv
uv

= . cm

Repeat similar calculations for other observations and obtain the mean of all the focal lengths.
2. Focal length from the graph between u and v :
Plot graph between u (cm) and v (cm) by choosing
appropriate scales along X/ -axis and Y/ axis as
shown in Fig. The graph comes out to be a
rectangular hyperbola. Draw the right bisector OQ of
the angle < X/ O Y/ a line OQ making an angle of 450
meeting the graph at Q. From Q, draw QA and QB
perpendiculars on X/ and Y/ -axes respectively.
Coordinates of point Q are (2f, 2f). From the graph of
Fig., we have OA = cm, and OB = .. cm.
Therefore f = OA/2 = .. cm and OB/2= cm.
Mean focal length, f = .. cm.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

3. Focal length from the graph between

1/u and 1/v :
Plot graph between 1/u (cm) and 1/v (cm) by
choosing appropriate scales along X/ -axis and Y/ axis
as shown in Fig. The graph comes out to be a straight
line equally inclined with X/ -axis and Y/ axis,
making equal intercepts on both the axes. From graph
of the Fig., we have
OA = .. cm-1 , and OB = .. cm-1 ,
Therefore f = 1/OA = .. cm and 1/OB = cm.
Mean focal length, f = .. cm.

Result
1. The focal length of the convex lens by using mirror formula f =

uv
uv

= . cm

2. The focal length of the convex lens as determined from graph between u and v is . . .cm.
3. The focal length of the convex lens as determined from graph between 1/u and 1/v is cm.
Precautions
1.. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the image needle I and inverted image of the object needle O.
2.. To locate the position of the image, the eye should be at least 30 crn from the needle.
3. The object needle and image needle should be distinguished by putting a paper flag on the object needle O. They
should not be interchanged for different set of observations.
4. The object should always lie at distance greater than f so that a real and inverted image is seen clearly from the
other side.

EXPERIMENT No. 9

Date-..

Aim- To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using convex lens.
Apparatus- An optical bench, four uprights, a lens holder, a mirror holder, a convex lens, convex mirror, two needle,
a metre scale and a knitting needle
Ray Diagram

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Formula Used
The focal length of the convex mirror is given by f = R/2 = PI/2
This can be explained as follows:
When a convex lens is introduced between convex mirror and object needle and their relative positions are adjusted
such that there is no parallax between the object needle and its inverted image (seen through both lens and mirror),
then the rays will normally on the convex mirror. These rays when extended meet behind the mirror at the centre of
curvature C. The distance PC gives the radius of curvature (= R) of the convex mirror.
To locate the position of centre of curvature C, the convex mirror is removed. Without disturbing the convex lens and ,
object needle and an image needle I is adjusted in such a way that there is no parallax between the tip of this image
needle I and inverted image of the tip of the object needle. Position of image needle I gives the position of the centre
of curvature in Fig. Thus PC = PI = R and f = R/2
Observations
Rough focal length of convex lens = .........cm
Step-1 To determine focal length of convex mirror
Sl.No
.

Position of upright with)

Object needle
O (cm)

Convex Lens L
(cm)

Convex mirror M
(cm)

Radius of curvature PI = R
Image needle
I (cm)

Observed
(cm)

1.
2.
3.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

4.
5.
Mean radius of curvature, R = .. cm
focal length of convex mirror, f = R/2 = cm
Result
T'he focal length of convex mirror using convex lens is .........cm.
Precautions
l. The focal length of convex lens should be sufficiently large (larger than focal length of the convex rnirror).
2. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.
3. The eye should be kept about 30 cm behind the needle while removing parallax.
4. When the mirror M is removed, the position of object needle 0 and lens L should not be disturbed while removing
parallax with image needle I.

EXPERIMENT No. 10

Date-..

Aim- To find the focal length of a concave lens, using convex lens.
Apparatus- An optical bench, four uprights, Two lens holder, a convex lens, a concave lens, two needle, a metre scale
and a knitting needle
Ray Diagram
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Formula Used
Let I be the position of real image of object needle O formed by convex lens L 1 , .A concave lens L2 , when interposed
between needle I and lens L1 , diverges the rays incident on it and let the real image is formed at I /.
For the concave lens, I/ can be regarded as real of image of the virtual object at position I. Therefore both object
distance O2I = u and image distance O2I/ = v are positive as shown in fig. Using lens formula,

1 1 1
=
f v u

or f =

uv
uv

Observations
Step-1 To determine rough focal lengths
Rough focal length of convex lens =......... cm.
Rough focal length of the combination (convex lens in contact with concave lens) = .........cm
Step-2 To determine focal length of concave lens
Sl.No.

Position of upright with)

Observed distance

Focal length of
concave lens

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C.C.H.S.
Object
needle
O (cm)

PHYSICS PRACTICALS
Convex
Lens O1
(cm)

Convex
Lens O2
(cm)

Image
needle
I (cm)

Image
needle I/
(cm)

O2I = u
(cm)

CLASS-XII
O2I/ = v
(cm)

f=

uv
uv

(cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean focal length of the concave lens, f = .. cm
Result
T'he focal length of concave lens using convex lens is .........cm.
Precautions
1.The focal lengths of convex lens and concave lens should be such that the combination of two lenses in contact is a
converging lens.
2. The separation between the two lenses should be kept small otherwise the field of view will become very narrow
3. The optical lenses of the two lenses as well as tips of the object and image needles should be at the same height.
4. Parallax must be removed tip to tip.
5. While finding the second position I/ of the image needle, both the object needle O and convex lens O 1 should be
kept fixed.
Note : For the student, it will be convenient if they perform second part first and the first part afterwards.

EXPERIMENT No. 11

Date-..
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Aim- To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and
angle of deviation.
Apparatus- A drawing board, a sheet of white paper, glass prism, drawing pins, all-pins, protractor, a ruler and a
graph paper.
Ray Diagram

Formula Used

= i+e-A
According to Prism equation
i + e = A + =>
Thus, the angle of deviation depends upon the angle of incidence. It is observed that the angle of deviation first
decreases, become minimum and then increases as the angle of incidence i is increased (Fig.).
Observations
Step 1. Angle of the Prism, A = 600
Step 2. Table for angle of deviation
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Angle of incident i (degree)

350
400
450
500
550
600

Angle of incident

(degree)

Plotting of Graph : Select suitable scale along X-axis and Y-axis and plot a graph between angle of incidence
.i along X-axis and angle of deviation along Y-axis. The graph is a curve as shown in Fig.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

The angle of minimum deviation from the graph is

Result 1. The angle of deviation first decreases with increases in angle of incidence i becomes minimum and then
increases
with further increase in angle of incidence.
2. The angle of minimum deviation from the graph is ..
Precautions
1. The boundary of the prism, incident ray and refracted ray all should be drawn with a sharply pointed pencil.
2. The distance between the two pins should be at least 7 to 8 cm.
3. The all-pins should be fixed vertically.
4. The tips of both the pins on the emergent ray RS and images of tips of both the pins on the incident ray AB should
lie in the same straight line.
5. The angle of deviation should be measured accurately with the help of protractor.
6. The graph between angle i and should be drawn by a smooth curve passing practically through most of the
plotted
points.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS
EXPERIMENT No. 12

CLASS-XII
Date-..

Aim- To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope angle.
Apparatus- A glass slab, a travelling microscope, Lycopodium powder and a marker.
Diagram

Formula Used
The ratio of real depth to the apparent depth of a refracting medium is equal to the refractive index of the medium.
Thus,

Real depth
Apparent depth

R 3R1
R 3R2

, where R1 , R2 , and R3 are the readings of the travelling

microscope at the object (cross mark), at the image I through glass slab and Lycopodium powder sprinkled on the
surface of glass slab.

Observations As (1 MSD =

1
2

mm )

Stcp l. To find vernier constant of travelling microscope 50 VSD = 49 MSD => 1 VSD =
But Vernier constant = 1 MSD - 1 VSD = 1 VSD =

1
50

1
2

mm) =

49
50

1
100

MSD =

1
50

49
50

MSD ,

MSD

mm = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm.

Step 2 : Table for finding real and apparent depths

Sl.No.

Microscope reading at
Cross mark
O R1 (cm)

Image I
Cross mark
R2 (cm)

Lycopodium
powder
R3 (cm)

Real depth
( R3 - R 1 )
(cm)

Apparent depth
( R3 - R 2 )
(cm)

=
Real depth
Apparent depth

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Mean refractive index of glass slab, = .

Calculations

Real depth
Apparent depth

R 3R1
R 3R2

= ..

Similarly, make calculations for the other observations and the mean value of refractive index.
Result
The refractive index of glass slab is .
Precautions
l. The eyepiece should be adjusted such that cross-wires are clearly visible.
2. The tangent screw of travelling microscope should be turned only in one direction to avoid backlash error.
3. The thickness of Lycopodium powder sprinkled on the top surface of glass slab should be very small.
4. Microscope setting should not be disturbed during one set of observations. Only rack and pinion arrangement
should be turned to move the microscope tube upward.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

EXPERIMENT No. 13

Date-..

Aim- To find refractive index of a liquid (water) using a concave mirror.

Apparatus- A concave mirror, a knitting needle fitted into a cork, an adjustable clamp, metre scale, water, etc.
TheoryAs a result of the refraction of light through a liquid, the bottom of the container of the liquid seems to be raised and
refractive index () of the liquid is related to the depth (d r) and apparent depth (da) of the container as follows :
=

Real depth
apparent depth

dr
da

Actualradius of curvatureof the concave mirror

apparent radius of curvatureof the same mirror wit h water it

Set up for studying the relation between real depth and apparent depth of a liquid by
using a concave mirror.

Observations- (WITH DIFFERENT MIRRORS)

S.No.

Distance CO
(cm)

Distance PO
(cm)

CO
PO

1.
2.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

3.
Mean value of =
Conclusion
CO PO i.e., real depth is proportional to apparent depth. Refractive index of the liquid used is
.
Precautions
1. The needle should be kept horizontal and the principal axis of the mirror should be vertical.
2. The distances should be measured from the centre of the mirror and not from the surface of water.
3. Eye should be kept at a distance of distinct vision while removing parallax.
4. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.
5. Spherical mirror used should be of large radius of curvature.

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

EXPERIMENT No. 14

Date-..

Aim- To find refractive index of a liquid (water) using a convex lens and plane mirror.
Apparatus- A convex lens, a plane mirror, iron stand, knitting needle fitted into a cork, an adjustable clamp, metre
scale, water, etc
Diagram

Formula used
(i) The focal length f2 of the plano - concave, lens (consisting of liquid put in between the mirror and convex lens) is
given by

1
f2

1
f

1
f1

or f2 =

f f1
f 1f

Where f1 and f are the focal lengths of the convex lens

and the combination respectively.

(ii) Using tens makers formula for planoconvex lens of the liquid, we have
=1+

R
f2

1
f2

= ( -1) [

1
R

=>

where is refiactive index of liquid and R is the radius of curvature of the lower surface of the convex

lens.
(iii) The radius of curvature R of the lower surface of convex lens is given by R =

l2
6h

h
2

where l is the average distance between two legs of spherometer and h is the difference in the readings of the
spherometer when placed first on convex lens and then on plane mirror.
Observations
Step 1- Rough focal length of convex lens = .........cm.
Step 2- Table for finding focal length f2 of plano-convex liquid lens.
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C.C.H.S.
S.No.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

Focal length of convex lens

Distance AO = f1
(cm)

Focal length of combination

lens Distance A/O = f
(cm)

CLASS-XII

Focal length of Planoconcave liquid lens

f2 =

f f1
f 1f

(cm)

1.
2.
3.
Mean focal length, f2 = . cm.
Step 3. To find least count of spherometer
Number of divisions on the circular scale, N = ..
Pitch =

No. of complete rotations given

Distance travelled along linear scale
thecircular scale

Least count =

pitch
No . of divisions on circular scale

Step 4. To determine distance

l =

AB+ BC +CA
3

= mm

= mm

(i) AB = cm (ii) BC = .. cm (iii) CA=.. cm

= . cm

Step-5 Table for finding h

S.No.

Main scale
reading
(mm)

Circular scale reading

(mm)

Total reading
(mm)

Corrected reading
(mm)

1.
2.
3.
Mean value of h = .. mm = . cm
Calculatios
(i) R =

l2
6h

h
2

(ii) = 1 +

R
|f 2|

Result
The refractive index of the given liquid using convex lens and plane mirror method is
Precautions
l.The plane mirror should have clean and fully shining surface.
2. The parallax between needle and its image should be removed tip to tip.
3. The eye should be at a distance of about 30 cm from the needle while removing the parallax.
4. only small quantity (a few drops) of liquid should be put on the plane mirror.
5. The distance should be measured from the tip of the needle to the optical centre of the lens.
6. The legs of the spherometer should be vertical.
7 . The centre leg of spherometer should be turned in one direction only to avoid backlash error.
8. The tip of central screw should just touch the surface of lens or mirror.
9. The mean distance / between the successive legs of spherometer should be measured accurately.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

EXPERIMENT No. 15

Date-..

Aim- To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
Apparatus- A p-n junction diode, a power supply (0- 3 V and 0 to 15 V ) with potential divider arrangement ( or a
rheostat), a resistance of 10 , a D.C. voltmeter (range 0 to 3 V),
a milliammeter (range 0 to 30 mA), a d.c. rnicro ammeter (range 0 to 500 A), a voltmeter (range 0 to l5 V) one-way
key or switch. connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
Circuit Diagram

Formula Used
The forward and reverse resistance of a p-n junction are given by

rF =

V F
IF

and r R =

V R
IR

Observations
Step-1. To determine Least count of instruments
Least count of voltmeter (having range 0 to 3 V)
= Volt .
Least count of voltmeter (having range 0 to l2 V)
= .........Volt
Least count of milliammeter (having range 0 to mA) = mA.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Least count of microammeter (having range 0 to A) = ......... A

[Note : Zero error in all the instruments should be made zero with the help of the screw provided for this purpose near
base of the instrument.]

Step 2. To study variation of current I with voltage V

Sl.No. Forward biased p-n junction diode
Voltmeter reading
VF (V)
division
value

Milliammeter reading
IF (mA)
division
value

Reverse biased p-n junction diode

Voltmeter reading
VR (V)
division
value

Microammeter reading
IR (A)
division
value

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Graph. (i) By selecting suitable scales, plot a graph between VF along X-axis and IF along Y-axis shown in figure.
Determine knee voltage Vk and dynamic resistance rF from the graph as Vk = .. V and

rF=

V F
IF

.
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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

(ii) By selecting suitable scales, plot a graph between V R along X-axis and IR along Y-axis shown in figure. Determine
thr reverse breakdown voltage from the graph.
Result- 1. The I-V characteristic of p-n junction in forward and reverse biasing are shown in Fig.
2. The knee voltage Vk = . .......V and Reverse breakdown voltage = . V.
3. Forward resistance and reverse resistance of pn junction are ......... and . .
Precautions
l. Voltmeter and milliammeter / microammeter should have appropriate ranges during forward as well as reverse bias.
2. Battery connections should be checked properly during forward bias.
3. Do not increase the current beyond the limits specified in the manual, otherwise the junction diode will get
damaged.
4. In reverse biasing, the milliarnmeter should be replaced by microamrneter and voltmeter of range (0--15 V) should
be used.
5. Once reverse breakdown is attained, the reverse potential should not be increased further.

EXPERIMENT No. 16

Date-..

Aim- To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a Zener diode (reverse bias) and to determine its reverse breakdown /
Zener breakdown voltage..
Apparatus- A Zener diode , a power supply (0 to 15 V ) with potential divider arrangement ( or a rheostat), a
resistance of 100 , a D.C. voltmeter (range 0 to 15 V), a d.c. rnicro ammeter 0 to 500 A ) one-way key or switch.
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
Circuit Diagram

Theory- Zener diode is a heavily doped p-n junction operated in the reverse biased region. The voltage drop across
the Zener diode in the breakdown region is independent of current through it.
Observations - Step-1. To determine Least count of instruments
Least count of voltmeter (having range 0 to 15 V)
= Volt .
Least count of microammeter (having range 0 to A) = ......... A
[Note : Zero error in all the instruments should be made zero with the help of the screw provided for this purpose near
base of the instrument.]
Step 2. To study variation of current I with voltage V of Zener diode
Page | 32

C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

Sl.No.

CLASS-XII

Reverse biased p-n junction diode

Voltmeter reading
division

VR (V)
value

Microammeter reading
division

IR (A)
value

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Graph. (i) By selecting suitable scales, plot a graph between VR along X-axis and IR along Y-axis shown in figure.
Determine thr reverse breakdown voltage from the graph.

Result
1. The I-V characteristic of Zener diode in reverse biasing are shown in Fig.
2. Zener breakdown voltage = . V.
Precautions
l. Voltmeter and microammeter should have appropriate ranges should be uses.
2. Zener diode should be used in reverse bias.
3. Once reverse breakdown is attained, the reverse potential should not be increased further by more than 5 % of Zener
break down voltage, otherwise the Zener diode will get damaged.
4. Voltmeter and microammeter with proper polarities (positive terminal towards positive pole of the battery) should
be connected

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

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C.C.H.S.

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

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C.C.H.S.

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CLASS-XII

Page | 38