PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

(2023-2024)
CLASS XII

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
 PHYSICS LAB MANNUAL
Instructions
1. Keep this booklet safe upto your board practical exam.

2. Circuit diagram, Tabular column, Ray diagram, calculations

to be doneon left page.

3. Put page numbers on top right corner of right page.

4. Aim, Apparatus, Formula, Procedure, sources of error,

precautions, result to be written on right page.

5. Result must be underlined with black pen.

6. Write all the readings in the tabular column with blue pen.

7. Do the calculations neatly with pen on left page.

8. Graph must be plotted in the graph sheet provided in end of

record notebook.

9. Scale of the graph must be properly written.

10. Leave minimum 2 paper after completing 8 experiments and

write the activities separately.

11. Complete the index along with the dates given and page numbers.
 INDEX

Exp.No. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENTS Pg.No.

1 Ohm’s law
2 Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire
3 Meter bridge-Combination of resistances (Series)
4 Sonometer- Frequency of AC mains
5 Focal length of Convex lens
6 Refractive index of liquid using Convex lens and plane mirror
7 Refractive index of liquid using Concave mirror
8 PN Junction diode

ACTIVITY Pg.No.
1 Assembling the components
2 Correcting The Wrong Circuit
3 Variation In Potential Drop With Length
4 Identification Of Electrical Components
5 Image Formation-Convex Lens
6 Focal length of Combination of lenses
 1. Ohm’s law

AIM:
To determine the resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph
between potential difference versus current.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Resistance wire, battery eliminator, milliammeter,
voltmeter, connecting wires, Rheostat.

FORMULA

Resistivity of the given wire

𝐑(𝛑𝐫𝟐)
𝛒=
𝐋
R – Resistance of the given wire in Ω
𝛒 - Resistivity of given wire in Ωm
L – Length of the given wire in m
r – radius of the given wire in m

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as shown in the diagram.

2. Adjust the rheostat and check whether ammeter and
voltmeter is showing reading.
3. Note the voltmeter and ammeter readings by varying the
rheostat. Calculate the resistance using the formula.
4. Repeat the observation.
5. Plot the graph of V verses I and find the slope.
6. Repeat the same for another wire of different material.
OBSERVATION 1:

For material 1

S.No. Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading

I(A) (V)

Radius (r) of the wire of given material 1

Least count of screw gauge = ×10-3 m

Zero error =
Zero correction =

S.No. PSR HSC OR=[(PSR)+(HSC×LC)] CR=OR±ZC

(×10-3 m) (div) (×10-3 m) (×10-3 m)

Mean (D) = ×10-3 m

Radius of the wire r = 𝑫 = ×10-3 m

𝟐
OBSERVATION 2:

For material 2

S.No. Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading

I(A) (V)

Radius (r) of the wire of given material 2

Least count of screw guage = ×10-3 m

Zero error =
Zero correction =

S.No. PSR HSC OR=[(PSR)+(HSC×LC)] CR=OR±ZC

(×10-3 m) (div) (×10-3 m) (×10-3 m)

Mean (D) = ×10-3 m

Radius of the wire r = 𝑫 = ×10-3 m

𝟐
 MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:

For material 1:
The resistance of the given wire from V-I graph……𝗇
The resistivity of the given wire……. 𝗇m

For material 2:
The resistance of the given wire from V-I graph…… 𝗇
The resistivity of the given wire……. 𝗇m

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Excess current may heat the coil and hence R may vary.
2. Zero error may be there.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connection must be tight and correct.
2. Less amount of current must be passed.
 2. Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire

AIM:
To find the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, resistance box,
Battery Eliminator, jockey, unknown resistance wire, connecting
wires.

FORMULA
(𝟏𝟎𝟎 −
𝑺=𝑹 𝒍)
𝒍
S -Resistance of the unknown wire in Ω
𝑹 -Resistance of known wire in Ω
l - Balancing Length in m

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Theory:

Wheatstone’s bridge: A meter bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone’s

bridge experiment as shown
𝑹
in figure. If there is no deflection in the
galvanometer, then 𝑷 = which is the condition of balance of bridge. We use
𝑸 𝑺
this relation to find the unknown resistance S of the given material of wire.

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in figure. Take out suitable resistance R
from the resistance box.
2. Touch the jockey at point A; see that there is deflection on galvanometer
on one side. Touch the jockey now on the point C of the wire. The
deflection in galvanometer should be on the other side. If it is so,
connections are correct. If the deflection is one- sided, adjust R till the
deflection is reversed.
3. If the deflections are on both sides, start sliding the jockey on the wire
from end A towards C.
4. Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is
called balance point.
5. Note the length AD and call it as balancing length l, DC will be (100 – l).
𝒍
From formula, 𝑹 = knowing R and l, S can be found. Repeat the
𝑺 (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
above procedure for five different values of R.
OBSERVATION 1:

To find the unknown resistance of the given wire

S.No. Value of Balancing (100-l) Resistance Of the wire,
known length, l (cm) (cm) (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
S=R
resistance, 𝒍
R (Ω) (Ω)
1
2
3
4
5

Mean, S= Ω

RESULT:

The resistance of the given wire is S= Ω

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires
when continuous current flows for some time.
4. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to
copper strips and connecting screws

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter

Bridge properly.
2. All connections should be neat and tight.
3. Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.
4. Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and
the wire in contact for a long time.
 3. Meter bridge-Combination of resistances (Series)

AIM:
To verify the law of combination (series) of resistances using a meter
bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box, Lechlanche
cell (or) battery eliminator of 2V, jockey, two unknown resistance wires
and connecting wires.

FORMULA
1)
(𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍)
𝑹 =𝑺 𝒍
S -Resistance of the unknown wire in Ω
𝑹 -Resistance of known wire in Ω
l - Balancing Length in m

2)
R S =R 1 + R1

R1 – Resistance of wire 1 in Ω
R2 – Resistance of wire 2 in Ω
RS– Resistance of combined wire (series) in Ω

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Procedure:
1. Measure the unknown resistances R1 and R2 using meter bridge
experiment.
2. Connect two resistances R1 and R2 in series.
3. Check for deflection on both sides by touching the jockey at both ends of
meter bridge wire.
4. Proceed in the same way as in meter bridge experiment. Take atleast
four sets of observations.
5. Compare the measured values of effective resistances using meter
bridge with calculated values.
OBSERVATION 1:
(i)
Resistance of the given wire (R1)

S.No. Value of Balancing (100-l) Resistance Of the wire,

known length, l (cm) (cm) (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
R1 = S
resistance, 𝒍
S (Ω) (Ω)
1
2
Mean, R1= Ω

(ii)
Resistance of the given wire (R2)

S.No. Value of Balancing (100-l) Resistance Of the wire,

known length, l (cm) (cm) (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
R2 = S
resistance, 𝒍
S (Ω) (Ω)
1
2
Mean, R2= Ω

(iii)
Resistance of the combined (series) wire (Rs)

S.No. Value of Balancing (100-l) Resistance Of the wire,

known length, l (cm) (cm) (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
Rs = S
resistance, 𝒍
S (Ω) (Ω)
1
2
Mean, Rs= Ω
RESULT:

Law of combination (series) of resistances using a meter bridge is verified

(i)
By theory, RS = R1 + R2 = Ω
(ii)
By experiment, RS = Ω

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires
when continuous current flows for some time.
4. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to
copper strips and connecting screws.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter

Bridge properly.
2. All connections should be neat and tight.
3. Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.
4. Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and
the wire in contact for a long time.
 5. Focal length of convex lens
AIM:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs
between u and v.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Convex lens, lens holder, metre scale, white screen, lamp with
object.

FORMULA
Focal length of convex lens
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝐟 𝐯 𝐮

f – focal length of convex lens in metre

v – Distance between image and convex lens in metre
u – Distance between object and convex lens in metre

By sign conventions
U is –ve
V is +ve
Thus
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐟 𝐯 𝐮

RAY DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:

1. Obtain rough focal length of given convex lens by focusing the image of a
distant object on the wall.
2. Mount the given lens on the lens holder and place at 2f distance from the
object.
3. Place white screen behind the lens.
4. Move the screen forward and backward so that the image of the object is
obtained.
5. Note the position of the object, image and the lens.
6. The distance between the object and the lens is u and the distance
between the image and the lens is v.
7. Repeat the above steps with lens at (2f-4),(2f-2), (2f+2) and (2f+4)
positions from the object.

OBSERVATION:

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm

S.No Object distance Image distance

(×10-2m) (×10-2m)
MODEL GRAPH

RESULT:

The focal length (f) of given convex lens from U-V graph is ×10-2 m

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not place the object closer than the rough focal length of the lens.
This will produce a virtual image.
2. Tips of the object and the image should be at same height and should
correspond with centre of curvature.
3. Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from image to view the image clearly.
 8. PN Junction diode

AIM:
To study the I-V characteristics curve of a PN junction diode in forward
bias and reverse bias.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A pn junction diode, a battery, a high resistance rheostat,
voltmeter, milliammeter, one way key and connecting wires.

THEORY:

Forward biasing:
The junction is said to be forward biased when the p-section of the diode is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-section of the
diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. With an
increase in the voltage, the current also increases. For Si diode, at 0.7 V
the current increases suddenly.
Reverse biasing:
The junction is said to be reverse biased when the p-section of the diode is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-section of the
diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. With an
increase in the voltage, there is a small change in the current but the
reverse current increases to a higher value with an increase in the
voltage.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:

For forward-bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), least count and zero error should
be noted.
4. To get the zero reading from the voltmeter and milli-ammeter,
rheostat should be brought near the negative end by inserting the
key K.
5. To apply the forward bias voltage (VF) of 0.1V, the contact should be moved
towards the positive end. The current remains zero.
6. Keeping current zero, increase the forward bias voltage up to 0.3 V for
Ge diode.
7. To record a small current using milli-ammeter, increase the VF to 0.4 V.
8. Increase the VF by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When the
VF becomes 0.7 V, the current will increase rapidly.
9. When VF = 0.72 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as
forward breakdown stage.
10. Take out the key if forward current won’t change as VF increased beyond
forward breakdown.
11. Record the observations.

For reverse bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter
(μA).
4. To get zero reading from the voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA, insert the
key K and bring the rheostat near the positive end.
5. To apply reverse bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, move the rheostat to the
negative end so as to flow the reverse current.
6. Increase VR by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When
VR becomes 20 V, the current will increase rapidly.
7. When VR = 25 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as
reverse breakdown stage. Record the current reading and take off the
key.
8. Record the observations.
OBSERVATION 1:

Least count of voltmeter = V

Least count of milliammeter = mA

(i) Forward bias characteristics

S.No Forward bias voltage Forward current (IF)

. (VF) (mA)

OBSERVATION 2:

Least count of voltmeter = V

Least count of microammeter = μA

(ii) Reverse bias characteristics

S.No Reverse bias voltage Reverse current (IR)

. (VR) (𝝁A)
MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:

characteristics curve of a PN junction diode in forward bias and

reversebias are studied.

1. Junction resistance for forward bias = …… Ω

2. Junction resistance for reverse bias = ……… Ω

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection
remains loose.
2. Each time the pointer of ammeter (milli or micro)may not be on a scale
mark.
3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, forward bias voltage should not be applied.
4. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.
ACTIVITIES
 ACTIVITY 1

ASSEMBLING THE COMPONENTS

AIM

To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Battery, plug key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and sand paper

PROCEDURE
 Connect the components as shown in Figure.
 After closing the key K, check that the voltmeter and ammeter show deflections
on the right hand side.
 Check the continuity of the assembled circuit using a multimeter

RESULT
The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

PRECAUTIONS
 Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper before
making connections.
 The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal
of the voltmeter and positive terminal of the ammeter.
 The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter
should be connected in parallel with the resistor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 ACTIVITY 2

CORRECTING THE WRONG CIRCUIT

AIM

To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat,
key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order
and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Battery, plug key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and sand paper

THEORY
Ammeter: It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator.
Voltmeter: It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.
Rheostat: It should be connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with the battery
eliminator.
Resistance coil: It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat).
One way key: It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator

PROCEDURE
 Consider one circuit whosevarious components arenot connected in proper order.
 Draw the correct circuit diagram.
 Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit diagram.
 Close the key in the circuit to verify if the corrected circuit is functional

RESULT
The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram is functional.

PRECAUTIONS
 Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper before
making connections.
 The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal
of the voltmeter and positive terminal of the ammeter.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION

Circuit Correct Incorrect

S. No
Component Connection Connection
1 Battery/cell
2 Resistor
3 Rheostat
4 Key
5 Ammeter
6 Voltmeter
 ACTIVITY 3

VARIATION IN POTENTIAL DROP WITH LENGTH

AIM
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Potentiometer, A battery eliminator, a low resistance rheostat, a voltmeter of range (0 to 3
V) an ammeter of range (0 to 3 A), one way key, a jockey, connecting wires, a Set Square,
and a piece of Sandpaper.

THEORY:
For a potentiometer with wire of uniform material density and thickness carrying a steady
current, potential drop is proportional to the length of the wire.

Where K is the potential drop per unit length. It is called the potential gradient.

PROCEDURE:
 All the connections are made as shown in diagram.
 The key is closed and the rheostat is adjusted such that the voltmeter gives full
scale deflection.
 Jockey is touched at end P at 0 cm. The voltmeter will give zero deflection.
 The Jockey is touched at marks separated by 50 cm length of the wire.
 The voltmeter reading is recorded in each case.

RESULT:
The potential gradient is found to be constant within the limits of experimental error. Its
mean value is0.00748 V cm–1 .
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 ACTIVITY 4

IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL
AIM
COMPONENTS

To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Multimeter, a collection of diode, LED, resistor and capacitor.
.
PROCEDURE
Check the physical appearance of the component.
 If the component has two terminals, it could be a resistor, a capacitor, a diode or
a LED.
 Look for colour bands, if it has a typical set of three colour bands followed by
a silver or gold band, the component is a resistor.
 Connect the multimeter terminals (in resistance mode highest range) to
the component terminals and watch for multimeter deflection.
 If the multimeter shows an equal deflection in both the directions, the component
is a resistor.
 If the deflection is accompanied with emission of light, in one direction and a
much less or zero deflection in the other direction the component is a LED.
 If the multimeter does not show any deflection in one direction and shows
deflection with no light emission in the other direction then, the component is a
diode.
 If the multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting its terminals either
way to the component, it is a capacitor. But if capacitance of capacitor is large,
multimeter may show a momentary deflection.

RESULT
A diode, a LED, a resistor and a capacitor are identified respectively from a mixed
collection.

PRECAUTION
While obtaining resistance of any component, clean its leads properly.
DIAGRAM
 ACTIVITY 5

IMAGE FORMATION-CONVEX LENS

AIM
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Source box, a convex lens of small focal length and known thickness, a screen with a stand,
metre scale.

PROCEDURE
 Mount the lens on the stand
 Obtain an approximate value of the focal length of the convex lens by focusing
the image of a distant object.
 From the rough values of ‘F’ calculate ‘2F’.
 Place the lens beyond 2F distance from the source box. Place the screen behind
the lens and move till you obtain the clear image on the screen. Note the
nature ,size, image of image from the lens in the observation table.
 Repeat the experiments by keeping the convex lens at the distance of 2F, between
F and 2F, at F, less than F from the source box. Note the nature ,size, image of
image from the lens in the observation table.

RESULT
The change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical predictions.

PRECAUTIONS
 This experiment should be performed at a shaded place where no direct light
reaches (preferably in a dark room) otherwise the images may not be
distinctly visible
 Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image formed on
the screen.
DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION TABLE
 ACTIVITY 6

COMBINATION OF

LENSES

AIM
To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses from the given
set of lenses.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A set of thin convex lenses, A single lens holder, A lens holder which can hold two lenses touching
each other, A metre rod and a screen.

THEORY:
1. The reciprocal of the focal length in metre is called power of a lens. It is
expressed in dioptre. For lenses of power P1 and P2, the power P of the
combination of the lenses is given as
P =P1 +P2

2. Let f1 and f2 be the focal length of the two lenses and F be the focal length of the lens
combination then,
1 1 1
= 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝐹
With a convex lens the real and inverted image of a distant object is formed at a
distance equal to the focal length of the convex lens.
PROCEDURE

 Take a convex lens (say focal length f1) and fix it into a lens holder.
 Put the lens holder on the left of the screen and move the lens towards or away
from the screen till a sharp,inverted image of distant object (say tree) is obtained on
the screen.
 Measure the distance with the help of metre rod between the lens holder and
screen where the sharp, inverted image of the distant object is focused. This
distance gives the focal length of the convex lens.
 Replace the first lens by second lens (say focal length f 1) and repeat the steps given
above to measure the focal length of the second lens.
 Now take a lens holder which can hold two lenses touching each other. Again repeat
the steps again to find the focal length of the lens combination (say F).

RESULT
 Measured value of focal length of lens combination = cm
 Difference between measured value of focal length and the
calculated focal length = cm
 The difference between the two could be due to experimental error.
DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION TABLE

Focal length of Focal length of Focal length of

s.no the first lens the second the combination
(f1) lens (f2) (F)
1
2