EXPERIEMENT-1

AIM : To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.

APP REQD: A resistance wire, a voltmeter and an ammeter , a battery (battery eliminator), a rheostat, a metre
scale, one way key, connecting wires

Theory
According to the Ohm’s law the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions,
pressure) of the conductor remains the same., V α I or V =IR

Resistivity of a material is given by where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.

Circuit diagram

Observations
1.Range of the given ammeter = ……….
2.Range of the given voltmeter = ……….
3.Least count of ammeter = ……….
4.Least count of voltmeter = ………
5.Length of wire 1 ------cm, 6.Length of wire 2 ----cm
6.Least count of the screw gauge= …..m
7 .Diameter of wire 1------mm, Diameter of wire 2 -------mm

s.no For wire 1 For wire 2

Voltmeter Ammeter reading (A) Resistance R = Voltmeter Ammeter Resistance
reading (V) V/I (Ὠ) reading (V) reading (A) R = V/I (Ὠ)

Calculation:Draw graph between V and I

Result
1The value of unknown resistance X1 , X2 =………
2.The specific resistance of the 2 given wires =……
Precautions and Sources of error
1.Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations near their ends
by rubbing with sand paper.
2.Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
3A low resistance rheostat should be used.
4.The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resistance (otherwise its
resistance will increase).
5.The instrument screws may be loose.

EXPERIMENT -2
AIM : To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.
Apparatus
A metre bridge,Battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a
screw gauge, a metre scale, connecting wires
Theory:Meter bridge is based on balanced wheat stone bridge principle
The unknown resistance X is given by

where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap of metre bridge. I
cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
Circuit diagram

OBERVATION TABLE FOR UNKNOWN RESISTANCE

CALCULATIONS
Mean resitance X is calculated by
X = ( X1+ X2 + X3 + X4 + X5)/R ohm
Result
The value of unknown resistance X =………
Precautions and Sources of error
The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
The instrument screws may be loose.
EXPERIMENT-3
Aim:To verify the laws of the combination of resistances using a meter bridge.
Resistance S.No of Resistance Length Length DC = Resistance Mean
Coil Observations from the AD (100 – l) cm r1=(100−l)/l Resistance
resistance = I cm (ohm)
box

r1 only 1. r1 = ……
2.
3.

r2 only 1. r2 = ……
2.
3.

r1 and r2 in 1. Rs = ……
series 2.
3.
Apparatus
A metre bridge, (Battery eliminator), a galvanomet,r, a resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a
screw gauge, a metre scale, connecting wires
Circuit Diagram

Theory
The resistance of a resistance wire or a coil is given by

where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap, and l is the length of the meter bridge wire from
zero ends up to the balance point.
(ii) When two resistors r1 and r2 are connected in series, their combined resistance is given as follows:
Rs = r1 + r2

Observations
Calculations for verification of laws r1 and r2 in series:
The Experimental value of Rs = ---- ohm.
The Theoretical value of Rs = r1+r2 = ------ ohm.
Experimental Error (Difference if any) =
Result
Within limits of Experimental Error, Theoretical and Experimental values of R s are the same. Hence, the law of
resistance in series is verified.
Precautions and sources of error
Same as exp -2
EXPERIMENT- 4
Aim
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance
boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, , connecting wires
Theory

Circuit diagram

Observations
Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method
Sno Resistance Deflection Shunt S ϑ/2 G= R S/(R-S) k = E/(R+S)
(R )Ω ϑ Ω Ω A/Div

Calculations
1.Mean value of galvanometer resistance - ---ohm
2. Mean value of figure of merit -------A/div

Result
Resistance of given galvanometer = …….. Ω
Figure of merit of given galvanometer = A/dn.
Precautions AND Sources of error
1 All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
2 The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
3 Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit The screws of the
instruments may be loose.
4 The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
5 The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
6 The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.
 EXPERIEMENT-5

Aim
To find, the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles ,a knitting
needle and ,a half metre scale.

Theory
The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

where,
f = focal length of convex lens u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.

Ray diagram

Observations
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = …….cm
Calculations
Calculations of focal length by graphical methods: (i) u-v Graph

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined by u-v graph is ………cm.
Precautions and Sources of error
1Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
3The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is formed.
4Index correction for u and v should be applied.
5The uprights may not be the vertical.
6.Parallax removal may not be perfect.

EXPERIMENT -6

Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse
bias.
Apparatus
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode box, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery,

Theory
Forward bias characteristics
. When the p -section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to
negative terminal of the battery then junction is said to be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the
forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly.
Reverse bias characteristics.
When the p -section of the diode is connected to negative terminal of high voltage battery and n-section of the
diode is connected to positive terminal of the same battery, then junction is said to be reverse biased.
Diagram

Observations
For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter = …..V
Least count of voltmeter = …..V
Range of milli-ammeter = …..mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = …..mA
 For reverse-bias
Range of voltmeter = …..V
Least count of voltmeter = …..V
Range of micro-ammeter = …..μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = …..μA

1 Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current 2Table for reverse-bias voltage and
forward current

Calculations
For forward-bias. For reverse-bias

Result
The characteristics curve obtained for the forward and reverse bias of pn junction is shown in the graph attached
Precautions and Sources of error
All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
The junction diode supplied may be faulty
EXPERIMENT -7
Aim: To find the value of v for different values of ‘u’ in case of a concave mirror & to find its focal length.
Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights. Concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optical needles, a knitting
needle & a half – meter scale.

THEORY: The mirror formula is: 1/f = 1 /u + 1 /v

We have, f = u v/ (u  v )Where, f = focal length of concave mirror.

u = distance of object needle from pole of mirror.
v = distance of image needle from pole of mirror.

Ray Diagram

OBERVATIONS
Observation: Rough focal length of given concave mirror = ----cm
Position
sno MIRROR(cm) OBJECT(cm) IMAGE(cm) Object distance Image distance
0 (cm) I ( cm)

Calculation

Draw graph between u and v and calculate f from graph.

Result: The focal length of the given concave mirror: (i) From u – v graph is : f = –
Precautions and . Sources of Error: *
: (i) The uprights should be vertical.
(ii) Tip-to-tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of needle O.
(iii) To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle
The uprights may not be vertical. *
Parallax removal may not be perfect
Two experiments one from each section 7+7 Marks
Practical record [experiments and activities 5 Marks
One activity from any section 3 Marks
Investigatory Project 3 Marks
Viva on experiments, activities and project 5 Marks
Total 30 mark

Experiments
SECTION–A
1. To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.
3. To verify the laws of combination (series)/( parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge.
4. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

SECTION-B
1. To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal length.
2. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.
3. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and
angle of deviation.
4.To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias.

Activities.
1. To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and a power source.
2. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
3. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and
voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit
diagram.
4. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
5. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.
6. To study the nature and size of the image formed by a (i) convex lens, or (ii) concave mirror, on a screen by
using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens/mirror).