Physics

Experiments & Activities

Grade-XII

2023-24

Total number of Physics Experiments: 8 ( 4 from each section) and 6 activities (3 from each section)
Index of the physics practical record book should be empty.
Order should be --Section A Experiments , Section A Activities, Section B Experiments , Section B
Activities.
Diagrams and observation table should be in BLANK page drawn and written by pencil.

## YOU ARE REQUESTED TO WRITE ALL THE DATA IN PENCIL .

PLEASE DO NEAT WORK AS 5 MARKS YOU CAN GET FOR THE RECORD BOOK.
DAIGRAM SHOULD BE DRAWN NEATLY IN THE BLANK SIDE OF THE PAGE. DOWN IN THE SAME
PAGE WRITE LABELLING FOR THE DIAGRAM.
PLEASE WRITE OBSERVATION TABLE IN THE BLANK PAGE..
GRAPH (IF IT IS THERE) DRAW IN THE NEXT BLANK PAGE.
DO NOT WRITE IF YOU HAVE ANY CONFUSION, KEEP THE PLACE EMPTY.

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 Section A

Experiments

1. To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.
3. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
4. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into an ammeter of
desired range and to verify the same.

Activities

1. To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and a
power source.
2. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
3. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key,
ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct
the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Section B

Experiments

5.To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal
length.
6. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and angle of deviation.
7. To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
8. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.

Activities

1. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
2. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass
slab.
3. To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

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Experiment 1: To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for
potential difference versus current.

Aim:

To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of

potential difference versus current, and hence to determine its resistivity.

Materials Required:

• A resistance wire
• A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range
• A battery (battery eliminator)
• A rheostat
• A metre scale
• One way key
• Connecting wires
• A piece of sand paper
• Screw gauge

Theory:
According to the Ohm's law, "The current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical
conditions (temperature, dimensions, pressure) of the conductor remains the
same." If I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential
difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's Law,

where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the

conductor. Or

….the working formula.

R depends upon the material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor.
To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the ratio V / I
remains constant for a given resistance, therefore a graph between the potential
difference(V) and the current (I) must be a straight line.
It is the constant ratio that gives the unknown values of resistance,
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For a wire of uniform cross-section, the resistance depends on the length l and the
area of cross-section A. At a given temperature the resistance,

where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic of the material

of wire.
Hence, the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire,

If 'r' is the radius of the wire, then the cross sectional area, A = πr². Then the
specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire is,

Diagram:

Procedure:

• First we'll draw the circuit diagram.

• Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement
diagram.
• Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove
insulation, if any.
• Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagrams.
While making connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of the
voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards the +ve terminals of the battery.

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 • Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero
error, if any.
• Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that the ammeter and
voltmeter are working properly.
• Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a small current passes
through the resistance coil or the resistance wire.
• Note down the value of the potential difference V from the voltmeter and
current I from the ammeter.
• Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both the ammeter and voltmeter
show full divisions readings and not in fraction.
• Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
• Take at least six sets of independent observations.
• Record the observations in a tabular column
• Now, cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals,
stretch it and find its length by the meter scale.
• Then find out the diameter and hence the radius of the wire using the screw
gauge and calculate the cross- sectional area A (πr²).
• Plot a graph between current (I) along X-axis and potential difference
across the wire (V) along Y-axis.
• The graph should be a straight line.
• Determine the slope of the graph. The slope will give the value of
resistance (R) of the material of the wire.
• Calculate the resistivity of the material of the wire using the formula,

Observations:

1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l =
2. Range
Range of the given ammeter =
Range of the given voltmeter =
3. Least count
Least count of ammeter =
Least count of voltmeter =

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 4. Zero error
Zero error in ammeter, e1 =.
Zero error in voltmeter,e2 =
5. Zero correction
Zero correction for ammeter, (-e1) =
Zero correction for voltmeter, (-e2) =

Observation table:

Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:

R=V/I
Serial no of obs Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (V)
(Ohm)

Observed Corrected
Corrected Observed

1
2
3
4
Mean value of resistance, R = ohms.
Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:

R=V/I
Serial no of obs Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (V)
(Ohm)

Observed Corrected
Corrected Observed

1
2
3
4
Mean value of resistance, R = ohms.

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Calculation:
Resistance per cm of the 1st wire is
Resistance per cm of the 2nd wire is
Cross-sectional area of the 1st wire, A = πr² =
Cross-sectional area of the 2nd wire, A = πr² =
Results:
Resistivity of the material of the 1st wire, ρ =
Resistivity of the material of the 2nd wire, ρ=
Precautions:
(1) The connection should be neat and tight
(2) Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range
(3) A low resistance rheostat should be used
Sources of error:
(1) Instrument screws may be loose.
(2)Thick connecting wires may not be available.

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Experiment 2: To measure resistance of a wire using Meter bridge.

Aim:

To find the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine
the specific resistance of its materials.

Materials Required:

• Metre bridge (slide wire bridge)

• Leclanche cell or Battery eliminator
• Galvanometer
• Resistance box
• Jockey
• One way key
• A resistance wire
• Screw gauge
• Metre scale
• Connecting wires

Theory:

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Wheatstone’s principle

The metre bridge operates under Wheatstone’s principle. Here, four resistors P,
Q, R, and S are connected to form the network ABCD. The terminals A and C
are connected to a battery, and the terminals C and D are connected to a
galvanometer through keys K1 and K2
respectively.
In the balancing condition, there is no deflection on the
galvanometer. Then,

Metre Bridge apparatus

A resistance wire is introduced in gap S and the resistance box is in gap R. One
end of the galvanometer is connected to terminal D and its other end is connected
to a jockey. As the jockey slides over the wire AC, it shows zero deflection at the
balancing point (null point).
If the length AB is , then the length BC is ( 100-l ).
Then, according to Wheatstone’s principle;

Now, the unknown resistance can be calculated as,

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Diagram:

Procedure:

• Arrange the required materials on a table and make the connections as per
the connections diagram.
• Connect the resistance wire in the left gap (between c & d) and resistance
box in the right gap.
• Introduce some resistance in the circuit by taking out some resistance from
the resistance box.
• Plug the key. Bring the jockey in contact with the end A first, and then with
C. Note the deflection on the galvanometer.
• If the galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction, the connections are
right and the null point is in between A and C.
• If not so, change the resistance in the resistance box and repeat the process
so that the null point is somewhere between A and C.
• If the galvanometer deflected towards a single side, then check the
connection.
• Now, slide the jockey slowly over the wire starting from one and (say, A)
and note the galvanometer deflection. Continue the process till the
balancing point is reached.
• Balancing point is the point at which the galvanometer shows zero
deflection. Now, note the position of the jockey from end A. Take it as the
balancing length (l) using the metre scale.
• Repeat the process for different values of R. The balancing length is
measured each time.
• Now, interchange the position of resistance wire and resistance box in gaps
AB and CD.
• Repeat the above steps to find the balancing length, for the same values of
R.
• We can calculate the unknown resistance of the resistance wire by using
the relation,

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Observations:
1)To find the resistance of the given wire:

Resistance, R Unknown Resistance

No. Balancing length, Length, BC
(Ω)
AB =l (cm) =(100-l) (cm) X=R(100-l)/l (Ω)

1 3

2 5

3 7

4 9

Calculation:
Mean resistance, X =

Resistance of the wire, X =

Results:

The unknown resistance of the given resistance wire=

Precautions:
(1) The connection should be neat and tight.
(2) Wire should not make a loop.

Sources of error:
(1) Instrument screws may be loose.
(2)The plugs may not be clean.

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Experiment 3: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection
method and to find its figure of merit.
Aim:
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to
find its figure of merit.

Materials Required:

• A weston type galvanometer

• A battery or battery eliminator
• Two resistance boxes
• Two one-way keys
• Connecting wires

Theory:
Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a device used to detect feeble electric currents in a circuit. It
consists of a coil suspended between the poles of a powerful magnet. As current
passes through the coil, it deflects. It can be detected from the deflection on
galvanometer needle. The deflection is proportional to the current passed through
it.
Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

Here, current will flows through the circuit when key k1 is closed and k2 is open.
The current flowing through the galvanometer is proportional to the deflection in
it.

Where, E - emf of the cell

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R – resistance from the resistance
box
G - galvanometer resistance for current I
θ - galvanometer deflection for current I

k – proportionality constant.
When k2 is closed and by adjusting the shunt resistance S, we can make
galvanometer deflection as θ/2.
Then the current in the circuit is ;

Now, a fraction, S/ (G+S) of the current in the circuit is flows through the
galvanometer, which is given by,

Now, from the above relations, we can get the resistance of the given
galvanometer as,

Figure of merit of a galvanometer

Figure of merit is in general is the numerical value representing the degree of
effectiveness or efficiency of an instrument approximated by different estimation
techniques.
The figure of merit of a galvanometer is the current required to produce a
deflection of one division in the galvanometer scale. It is represented by the letter
k, and is given as,

or ,

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Diagram:

Procedure:

Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method :

• Arrange the components on a table and connect them as per the circuit
diagram.
• Make sure that plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
• Take out a high resistance from the resistance box 1 and insert the key k1.
• Adjust the resistance from this resistance box to get maximum
galvanometer deflection.
• Note the deflection and record it as θ in the tubular column.
• Insert the key k2 also, without changing the value on the resistance box.
• Now, adjust the resistance from the low resistance box such that
galvanometer shows deflection which is exactly half of the previous
reading.
• Record the value of low resistance box.
• We can repeat the experiment by changing the value of high resistance R
and adjusting low resistance S.
• The resistance of the given galvanometer can be calculated each time by
using the relation G= RS/(R-S).

Figure of merit of the galvanometer :

• Release key k2 from the connection. Insert key k1.

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 • Adjust the value of R such that the galvanometer shows a certain
deflection.
• Record the observations in a tabular column.
• Repeat the experiment by changing the value of R and note the
galvanometer deflection each time.
• We can find the figure of merit of the galvanometer by using the equation,
k= E/(R+G)θ.

Observations:

Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method.

Galvanometer
Deflection in Shunt resistance
Resistance, Half
the Resistance,
No. R deflection,
galvanometer, S
( )
( )
( )
1

Figure of merit of the galvanometer

No. of EMF of Figure of Merit,
cells cells E( V) Resistance,
No. R Deflection,
(div.)
()
( Amp/div )
1

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Calculation:
1.Calculation for G.
(i) Using formula , G= RS/ (R-S)
(ii) The mean value of G recorded in column G of table 1.
2. Calculation of k.
(i) Using formula, k= E/ (R+G)Ө
(ii) The mean value of k recorded in column k of table 2.
Results:

The resistance of the given galvanometer=

The Figure of merit in given galvanometer =

Precautions:

(1) The e.m.f of the cell or battery should be constant

(2) All the plugs in the resistance boxes should be tight

(3) Connections should be neat, clean and tight.

Sources of error:

(1) The e.m.f of the battery may not be constant

(2)The screws of the instruments may be loose.

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Experiment 4: To convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter.
Aim: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of
merit) into an ammeter of desired range and to verify the same.

Materials Required:

• Galvanometer
• Cell
• Rheostat
• Ammeter of desired range
• Resistance wire
• Key
• Screw gauge

Theory:
A galvanometer is a device used to detect feeble electric currents in a circuit. It
has a coil pivoted (or suspended) between concave pole faces of a strong
laminated horse shoe magnet. When an electric current passes through the coil,
it deflects. The deflection is proportional to the current passed. The
galvanometer coil has a moderate resistance (about 100 ohms) and the
galvanometer itself has a small current carrying capacity (1 mA).
An ammeter is a device used for measuring large electric currents in circuits. For
this purpose, it is put in series with the circuit in which the current is to be
measured.
A galvanometer can detect only small currents. Thus, to measure large currents
it is converted into an ammeter. It can be converted into an ammeter by
connecting a low resistance called shunt resistance in parallel to the
galvanometer.
Let G be the resistance of the galvanometer and Ig be the current for full scale
deflection in the galvanometer, the value of the shunt resistance required to
convert the galvanometer into an ammeter of 0 to I ampere is,
S=Ig×GI−Ig
Ig is calculated using the equation, Ig = nk, where n is the number of divisions on
the galvanometer and k is the figure of merit of galvanometer.
The figure of merit of a galvanometer is defined as the current required in
producing a unit deflection in the scale of the galvanometer. It is represented by
the symbol k and is given by the equation,

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Where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and θ is the deflection produced with resistance
R.
Let ‘l’ be the length of the resistance wire required for a resistance of S ohm,

where, r is the radius of the wire and ρ is the resistivity of the material of the wire.

Diagram:

Procedure:

• The shunt resistance required to convert the galvanometer into ammeter of

range I is calculated using the formula,

G- the resistance of the galvanometer.

I- the range of desired ammeter
Ig = nk, the current required for full scale deflection in the galvanometer,
where, n- total number of divisions in the galvanometer
k- the figure of merit of the galvanometer.
Then, the length of the wire required for shunt can be calculated using the

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formula,

Where, ρ- the resistivity of material of the wire

r- the radius of the wire, which can be measured using a screw gauge.

• Cut the resistance wire at a length of (l+2) cm.

• Make two marks near the ends of the wire so that the distance between the
marks is exactly l cm.
• The wire is now connected to the terminals of the galvanometer so that the
marks are just outside the terminals of the galvanometer.
• The galvanometer with the shunt connected across its terminals is the
converted ammeter of the desired range.
• Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

• The galvanometer with shunt resistance is connected in series to a battery

through an ammeter, key and rheostat.
• Insert the key.
• Adjust the rheostat and set the current reading I of the given ammeter at a
particular value.
• The reading of the galvanometer Ig’ is noted. Now, the current through the
converted ammeter is calculated using the relation,

• The error of the converted ammeter is calculated as I – I’.

• Repeat the experiment by changing the rheostat resistance.
• A graph can be drawn with (I – I’) along Y-axis and I’ along X-axis. This
is called the correction graph.
• Thus, the converted ammeter is verified with an ammeter of the same range
and a correction graph is obtained.

Observations:
Resistance of the galvanometer, G =
Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k =
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n =
Current for full scale deflection, Ig =.
Desired range of the converted ammeter I=

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Shunt resistance,

= Ω

Galvanomet
Error of the
er
Trial Current, I1= Ө X Ammeter Reading I2 converted ammeter
Reading
No. LC
Deflection (I2 – I1)
(Ө)
1
2
3

Calculation:
Shunt resistance,

= Ω

Radius of the wire, r = d/2 = mm = m.

Resistivity of the material of the copper wire, ρ = Ωm
Length of the wire required for shunt can be calculated using the formula,

= cm

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Results:
The given galvanometer is converted into an ammeter of range 0 to 5.A by
connecting a shunt resistance of Ω

Precautions:

(1) The e.m.f of the cell or battery should be constant

(2) Connections should be neat, clean and tight.

Sources of error:

(1) The e.m.f of the battery may not be constant

(2)The screws of the instruments may be loose.

(Start from Next ruled page)

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ACTIVITIES

SECTION-A

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 SECTION –B (leave one page)

Experiment 5: To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a

concave mirror and to find the focal length
Aim: :
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and
to find the focal length.

Materials Required:

• An optical bench with 4 uprights

• Concave mirror
• Mirror holder
• 2 optical needle (1 thick , 1 thin)
• Screen
• Meter scale

Theory:
• Concave Mirror
• Concave mirrors have the reflecting surface that bulges inward. They are also called
converging mirrors because it converges all parallel beam of light incident on it.
Unlike a flat mirror, concave mirrors can form real images that are projected out in
front of the mirror at the place where the light focuses. Concave mirrors can be used
in satellite dishes, vehicle headlights, astronomical telescopes and many more areas.

• Pole (P): The centre of the spherical mirror.

• Centre of curvature (C): The centre of the sphere, of which the mirror is a part.

• Principal focus (F): The point on the principal axis, on which all parallel rays meet after
reflection.

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 • Radius of curvature (R): The distance between pole and centre of curvature.

• Focal length (f): The distance between pole and principal focus.

• Mirror Formula
• The equation connecting the distance between mirror and object (u), distance
between mirror and image (v), and the focal length of the mirror (f) is called mirror
formula.

• Or ; The focal length of the concave mirror,

Ray Diagram:

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Procedure:

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Observations:

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Observations table:

Calculation:

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Results:

Precautions:

(1) All upright should be vertical

(2) Tip to tip parallax should be removed

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Sources of error:

(1) The upright may not be vertical

(2) Parallax removal may not be perfect

(Start from Next ruled page)

Experiment 6: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by

plotting a graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Aim: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a

graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Materials Required:

1)Drawing board
2)A white sheet of paper
3)Prism
4)Drawing pins,
5)Pencil
6)Half metre scale
7)Office pins
8)Graph paper
9)Protractor
Theory:
.

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Diagram:

Procedure:

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Observations:

(Please keep the table and graph empty)

Graph:

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Calculation:

=1.52

Results:

Precautions:

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Sources of error:

(Start from Next ruled page)

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Experiment 7: To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling
microscope.

Aim: To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling

microscope.

Materials Required: (write the following items one after other)

Theory:
.

Diagram:

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Procedure:

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Observations:

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(PLEASE DO NOT WRITE READINGS)

Calculation:
Mean=

Results:

The refractive index of glass slab is 1.55

Precautions:

1) The screws used in focussing the microscope should be moved in

only one direction to avoid back-lash error.
2) . The glass slab should be placed on a horizontal surface.

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3). Use hand lens/magnifying glass to read the vernier scale to avoid
error in finding vernier coinciding division.

Sources of error:

1). Position of the microscope may not be normal to the surface of the
glass slab.
2). If the layer of lycopodium powder/chalk dust spread on the glass
slab is thick, it will not actually represent the top of the glass
slab and thus produce error in the result.
(Start from Next ruled page)

Experiment 8: . To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in
forward bias and reverse bias.
Aim: .
To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias
and reverse bias.

Materials Required:

Theory:

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.

Diagram:

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Procedure:

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Observations:

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Observations Table:
▪ Table for forward bias voltage and forward current
Sl no. of obs Forward bias voltage Forward current (mA)
(V)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

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 9
10
11
12
13
14
15

▪ Table for reverse bias voltage and reverse current

Serial no. of obs Reverse bias voltage Reverse current (μA)
(V)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

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(Please keep the graph empty)
Graph:

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Calculation:

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Results:

(Please keep the value empty)

Precautions:

(ii) Connections should be made carefully.

(iii) Heating effects of transistor should be taken care of.

Sources of error:

(i)To avoid over heating of the transistor, current may not be passed for long
durations.
(ii)Voltages applied may be well below the safety limit of the transistor.

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ACTIVITIES
SECTION-B

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Activity-6

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Observation :

Sl no Angle of incidence Angle of emergence

1 300 300
2 400 400
3 500 500

Result:

Hence, angle of incidence is equal to angle of emergence.

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