Chapter 3 OHM'S LAW

E XPE RIM ENT Al

AIM

To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential

difference versus current.
APPARATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two resistance wires (of constantan and nichrome and of about 1 m length), a voltmeter (0-3 V), a
milliammeter (0-500 mA), a low resistance rheostat, two dry cells (or a batteryeliminator), plug
key, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, screw gauge and a metre scale.
THEORY

According to Ohm's law, the current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference Vapplied across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature and
pressure) of the conductor remain unchanged,
V
VaI Or V= IR
R=T
where Ris the resistance of the conductor. Obviously,the graph between the current I and the applied
voltage V will be a straight line passing through the origin.
1
R=
Slope of I-V graph
But the resistance Rof a wire of length l, area of cross-section Aandspecific resistance pis given by
where r is the mean radius of the wire.
R=p=P
A

Rx nr2
Specific resistance, p=

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
E E2
Plug key Rheostat

K Battery Rh

mA
Dry cells Resistance wire
Resistance Connecting wire
wire

Ammeter Voltmeter

Fig. 3.1 Circuit to study I-V relationship Fig. 3.2 Assembly circuit diagram.
for a resistance wire.

31
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI

PROCEDURE

(a) Tomeasure resistance of the wire :

1. Draw aneat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 31. (nichrome
2., Let us label the two resistance wires as A(constantan wire) and B wire). Arrange
the required apparatus on the working table in accordance with Fig. 3.2.
3. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires with the help of asand paner
4. Remove the plug from the kev Kand make neat and tight connections as shown in Fig 2
Ensure that the resistance wire Ais connected in series with a milliammeter mA, battery E, a
key Kand a low resistance rheostat Rh, while the voltmeter Vis joined in parallel with it.
5. See that the positive terminals of the milliammeter and the voltmeter have beern connected to
the positive terminal of the battery and the rheostat is connected through its upper terminal
at one end and through one of its lower terminals at the other end.
6. Record the ranges and the least counts of the milliammeter and the voltmeter.
7. Note that the pointers of the milliammeter and the voltmeter are at the zero mark when the
key Kis 'off. If it is not so, adjust their pointers to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting
the screw provided near the base of the front penal using a screw driver. Even then if the
error persists, note the zero errors of the milliammeter and voltmeter.
8. Insert the plug in the key K and adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat at one extreme,
away from the lower terminal from which one connection of the rheostat has been made.
This allows only asmall current to pass through the wire. If required, slightly
sliding contact so that the pointer of the milliammeter lies exactly on same adjustingof its
the
marking
graduated scale and not in between two markings. Note the readings of the voltmeter and
the ammeter.

9. Now increase the current in steps by adjusting the

sliding contact of the rheostat and in each
step note the readings of the voltmeter and the
milliammeter
for at least six-sets of such
observations. Note that the plug in the key is inserted only at the time of taking a
the resistance wire does not get heated. reading,
so that
(b) To measure length of the resistance wire:
10. Mark har marks on the resistance wire at Experimental wire
the points where it just comes out of the Bìnding
binding terminals. Measure the length Iof Screw

the wire between these two marks with a

metre scale, keeping the wire fully stretched.
Fig. 3.3 To measure length of a
(c) To measure diameter of the resistance wire : resistance wire.
11. Find the pitch and least
count of the screw gauge. Determine its
zero error and zero correction.
12. Measure the diameter of the d,
four different positions of the resistance wire with screw gauge at
wire and that also in two
d,

peteiular directions aa' and bb', as shown in Fig 34mutually

13. Find mean corrected
observed diameter.
diameter by applying zero correction to the
14. Repeat all the above
otbservationsfor second wire B Fiq. 3.4
15. Record all the observations in a tabular torm.

32
 Ch pt3 OHM'S LAW

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

A. For determination of resistances of wires A and B
Range of voltmeter = to V
Range of milliammeter = to mA
Least count of voltmeter =
Least count of milliammeter = mA
Zero error for voltmeter, e, =.
Zero correction for voltmeter, C =-e, =. A
Zero error for milliammeter, e, = mA
Zero correction for milliammeter, c, =-e, mA
Least count of metre scale = Cm

Length of the resistance wire, l= cm

Table 3.1: Voltmeter and milliammeter readings

Wire Voltmeter reading V() Milliammeter reading I (mA)
S.No. Corrected
used Observed V, Corrected
V=V, t C1 ObservedI I =I, t Cz
1
Wire A
3.
1
Wire B 2
3.

YA Graph of I vs. V for wireA

Choosing suitable scales, plot Scale :

current-voltage graphs by taking 500 Along X-axis : 1 cm =0.25 V

Along Y-axis : 1 cm =50uA
corrected values of V along X-axis
and corrected values of I along 450

Y-axis for both wires A and B. We

400
obtain straight line graphs pasing
through the origin, as shown in
350
Fig. 3.5 and 3.6, respectively. +(V)I
From V-1 graph for wire A 300
1
Slope of the graph AV R 250

AV AC (V,-V,)V 200
V
1C
AI BC (1, -I, )mA
(V,-V,)V
(1, -1,)x10A X 0.0 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
y V(volt) ’
Fig. 3.5 Graph between crrent I and potential difference V for wire A.

33
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Graph of I vs. Vfor wire R

From V-I graph for wire B YA
Scale :
Along X-axis: 1cm =0.25 V
1 300
Slope of the graph = AI Along Y-axis : 1 cm =50 A
AV R
250

Rg
AV PR (V,-V,)v (Vu)
QR (L,-1,jmA 200

(V, -V,)V R

(, -1,)x 10A 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00

0.0
2.25 2.50
V(volt)’
Fig. 3.6 Graph between current I and potential
B. For determination of specific
resistances of wires A and B
difference Vfor
Length of the wire A, I, Cm = m

Length of the wire B, Cm = m

Pitch of the screw
gauge = cm
Number of divisions on circular scale = 100
Least count of the screw pitch Cm =
gauge 100
Cm

Zero error of the screw

Zero correction of the gauge,
e= Cm

screw gauge, C=-e= Cm

Table 3.2 : Diameter of the

resistance wires
Wire Observed diameter = MSR + CSR × LC
used S.No. in one direction
in perperndicular direction Mean diameter = d, +d,
d, (cm) 2
1 d, (cm)
Wire A 2
(cm)
3
1
Wire B 2
3

For wire A:
Mean observed diameter, d, =
Cm
Mean corrected diameter, d=
do +c= Cm
Mean radius of the
resistance wire, r=
2
d
Cm =
m
Specific resistance of the material of the
wire.
Standard value from the table of
Qm
specific resistances, po=
% Error
P-Pox100 =
Po %

34
 Chapter 3 : OHM'S LAW

For wire B:
Mean observed diameter, d, = Cm

Mean corrected diameter, d=d, +c= Cm

d
Mean radius of the resistarnce wire, r=*= m

Specific resistance of the material of the wire, p= = 2m

Standardvalue from the table of specificresistances, Po = 2m

% Error PPox 100=

Po
RESULT
1. The current through the given resistance wire varies linearly with the potential difference
across its ends.

2. Specific resistance of wire A = 2m

3. Specific resistance of wire B = Qm

PRECAUTIONS
1. All the connections should be eat and ight
2. The ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned with a sand paper.
3. The resistance wire should be wound on a card-board strip (-3 cm x6 cm) so that two distant
points on it may not get short-circuited.
4. Ammeter should be connected in sorie and voltmeter i parale with the circuit. The pointers
of the ammeter and the voltmeter should be adjusted forzoo dellectionwhen no current passes
through them. If it is not possible, then zero corrections should be determined for the two mneters.
5. Always connect thepositive ierminale of the ammeter and voltmeter to the positive terminal
of the battery, so that current enters at a +ve terminal and leaves at a ve terminal.
6. Use a low resistance rheostat to change the current and ol aresistance box as smooth
variation of current is possible only with a rheostat and not with a resistance box.
7. The ammeter and voltmeter used should be of suitable range. For low currents, a
milliammeter should be used.
8. Current should be passed for ashortin only while taking a set of readings, otherwise the
resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating.
9. The length of only that portion of the experimental wire should be measured which lies
outside the binding terminals.
10. As the diameter of the wire is a smal quantity and its con power occurs inplaces
the expression
along the
for specific resistance, it should be measured accurately at a number of
length of the wire and that also along two nutuallv perpendicular directions.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. Resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating.
taut or it is not along
3. There may be an error in the measurement of length lif the wire is not
the scale in the metre bridge.
the wire due to backlash error in the
4. There may be an error in the measurement of radius of
Screw gauge.
35
 E XPERI MEN T A2
1 AIM

To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, a resistance wire about 1 m
resistance is to be determined), resistance box, a dry cell (or a batterylong (of material whose
jockey, connecting wires, sand paper and a screw gauge. eliminator), plug key,
THEORY
With the known resistance P in the left gap and the
metre bridge, suppose the null point Bis obtained at unknown resistance S in the right gap of
a distance of lcm from the left end A the
principle of Wheatstone bridge, By the
p R
S
Or
Resistance of wire AB R
Resistance of wire BC S
Or R
100 -1 sS
[:" Resistance Length of wirel
or
S= R 100-11

40
 C.RCUuiT DIAGRAMS
K

R.B.
R D

b,

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(a)
B

A Jockey J
l cm (100 I) cm
Plug key

Leclanche cell

D
R
b,
1cm (100) cm
10 20 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ae
B
A
Bridge wire

Galvanometer
)
(c) (b)

Fig. 4.5 Measurement of resistance by a metre bridge.

PROCEDURE
1. Draw aneat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.5(a).
2. Assemble the required apparatus on the working table in accordance with Fig. 4.5(b).
3. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper.
Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist.
4. Connect the resistance box R.B. across the left gap ab and the unknown resistance S across
the right gap a,b, of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer
between the points Band D. Connect a dry cell between the points Aand Cthrough a plug
key K. This arrangement forms the Wheatstone bndge shown in Fig. 4.5(c).
5. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box
R.B. and insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end Aand then at the
right end Cof the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite
directions. If there is one-sided deflection, check up the circuit again, particularly the
continuity of the junctions.
41
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

jockey
6. Take out a suitable resistance Rfrom the resistance box so that when the is
the middle of the wire (i.c., between 30-70 cm divisions), there is no deflection
Also
nearinly thein
galvanometer. Note the position of the null point Bfrom the metre scale. note the
resistance R introduced from the resistance box R.B.
If the currentthrough the galvanometer is large and its deflection gets out of scale, a
shunt of aloy
resistance wire should be connected across the galvanometer for obtaining an approximate nul poi
However, the shunt must be removed for obtaining the exact balance point.
7. Repeat the experiment three more times by changing slightly the value of resistance R
taking care that the null point always lies between 30 - 70 cm divisions. and
8. Record all the observations in a tabular form.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCU LATIONS

Table 4.1 : Resistance of the given wire
S.
Known resistance Position of null Ratio arms P,Q Resistance of wire
from resistance
No.
box = RQ
point B
Length AB =1 LengthBC = (100 -I) S=R 100 -1
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5

Mean value of S=
RESULT

Resistance of the given wire =

PRECAUTIONS
1. All the connections should beand
2. The plugs in the resistance box must be kept
tight by giving thema e s t after inserting.
3. The jockey should not be pressed too
hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the
uniformity of the metre bridge wire.
4. The battery circuit should be closed first
before
reverse order should be followed at the time of pressing
break.
the jockey on the bridge wire and
5. Move the jockeyt over the bridge wire and do not
rub it against the wire.
6. The current through the bridge wire
should be passed for onlyas much time as is
for getting a null point. essential
7. The known resistance R should always be
between 30-70 cm divisions.
adjusted in such a way so as to get the null point
8 The galvanometer should be shunted by a lowW
hence out of scale deflection in it when the resistance wire to avoid excessive current and
bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be
removed while getting the exact balance point.

1. The bridge wire may not be of

uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
12
 Chapter 4: METRE BRIDGE

2. End corrections. The resistance offered by the copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire
are called end resistances, errors due to these resistances are called end errors and corrections are
called end corrections. To avoid this error, the balance point should be obtained near the midpoint of
the wire. This error can be totally eliminated by interchanging positions of resistances Rand S.
3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
4. The galvanometer pointer may not be exactly at the zero mark. It must be adjusted to zero
by gently moving the screw at the bottom of the front panel with the help of a screw driver.

E XPE RIM ENT A3

AIM

To verify the law of series combination of resistances using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two
resistance coils R, and R,), a resistance box, a jockey, a plug key, a dry cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY
(a) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance R in the left gap and the
unknown resistance S(R, or R, or series combination of R, and R,) in the right gap of the metre
bridge, suppose the balance point is obtained at a distance Icm from the left end, then the
unknown resistance is given by
S=
()
(b) Law of series combination of resistances. When two resistances R, and R, are connected in
series, their equivalent resistance Ris given by : R= R+Ry
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

R R
R.B.
R D

a b b,

0 10 20 30 40 5 60 70 80 90 100

Jockey J
4

lcm t (100 -I) cm

Tq. 4.0 Circuit to study law of resistances in series.
43
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

PROCEDURE
1. Drav neat circuit diagran as shown in Fig. 4.6 and assemble the required apparatus on the
working table accordingly.
resistance R, acee
Connect the resistance box RB. across the left gap ab and the unknown
2. the right gap a,b, of the metre bridge. Connect ajockey and a sensitive galvanometer between
key K
the points Band D. Connect adry cell between the points A and C through plug
3. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box
then at
K.B. and insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and
right end Cof the bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions
4. Adjust the resistance Rfrom the resistance box R.B. insuch a way that the balance point is
obtained nearly in the middle of the wire AC. Note the value of the resistance Rand the
position of the balance point RTake three sets of observations by slightly changing the value
of resistance Reverv time.

5. Now connect resistance R, across the right gap a,b, in place of resistance R. Obtain null
point for it. Again take three sets of observations for resistance Ry.
6. Now connect both the resistances R, and R, in series (end to end), as shown in Fig. 4.6.
across the right gap a,b, . Ensure that the effective length of each resistance wire remains
unchanged. This means that at the point where the two wires are joined end to end, the
lengths of the ends that were inserted into the binding terminals in steps 5 and 6 should be
twisted together. Take three sets of observations for the null point of this combination.
7. Record your all observations in a tabular form.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Table 4.2 : For determining resistances R,, R, and R,
Known Position of Ratio arms P, Q Unkiown
S. resistance null point resistance Mean
Resistance No. from Length Length
B AB = 1 BC = (100 -) 100 - unknown
R.B. = RQ (cm) S= R resistance
(cm) (cm)

R=
Experimental value of series comnbination of resistances R
Theoretical value of series combination of resistances R' = R, +R
Difference R R'

RESLULT
wAbin the limits of experimental error, the
iotion of resistances are equal 0 theexperimnental and the
laW of combination oftheoretical values of the seres
series stands veriied.
44
 Chapter 4 METRE BRIDGE

PRECAUTIONS
1. All the
connections should be neat and tight.
2. The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting
them.
3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the
uniformity of the metre bridge wire.
4. The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire and
reverse order should be followed at the time of break.
5. Move the jockey gentlv over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire.
6. The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential
for getting a null point.
7. The known resistance R should alwavs be adjusted in such awav so as to get the null point
between 30-70 cm divisions.
8. The galvanometer should be shunted by alow resistance wire to avoid excessive current and
hence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be
removed while getting the exact null point.
9. Ensure that the same lengths of resistance wires R, and R, are used for determining R, as
have been used for determining R, and R, individually.
SoURCES OF ERROR
1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
2. There may be end errors due to resistances of copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire.
3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the resistance wires may get heated up and their
resistances may change.
4. The effective lengths of the resistance wires used while measuring R may not be exactly
same as those used while measuring R, and R, individually.

E XPE RIME NT A4
AIM

To verify the law of parallel combination of resistances using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two
resistance coils R, and R,), a resistance box, ajockey, a plug key, adry cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY
(0) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance Rin the left gap and the
unknown resistance S(R, or R, or parallel combination of R, and R,) in the right gap of the

45
 LAB MANUAL

metre bridge, Suppose the balance point is obtained at a distance I cm fromn the left end, then the

unknown resistance is given by

S= R| 10
(b) Law of parallel combination of resistances. When two resistances R, and R, are connected in
parallel, their equivalent resistance R, is given by
1 1 1 R, R,
R R + R,
R, R R,
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
K

R.B.
R
D

b
bË

0 10 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

A
Jockey J Circuit to study law of
lcm resistances in parallel.
-(100 - I) cm
PROCEDURE
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig.
4.7 and assemble the required apparatus on the
working table accordingly.
2. Remove the insulation from the
ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a
Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by sand paper.
3. Connect the resistance box
giving thema eAsis.
R.B. across the left gap ab and the
unknown
a jockey and a cnsitve resistance
the right gap a, b, of the metre bridge. R, across
the points Band D. Connect a dry cell Connect galvanometer between
between the points Aand C through
4. To see that the
connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the a plug key K.
R.B. and insert the plug in the key resistance box
end Cof the metre bridge wire. TheK. First press the jockey at the left end Aand then at the right
5. Adiust the resistance R from deflections in the two cases should be in opposite
the resistance box R.B. in such a directions
obtained the middle of the wire AC. Note the
in way that the
the balance point B Take three value of the resistance R andbalance
the
point is
sets of observations by position of
resistance Revery time. slightly changing the value of
6. Now connect resistance R,
it. Again take three sets of across the gap a, b, in place of resistance R,.Obtain null point for
7. Now connect both the
observations for resistarnce R,.
bridge. Ensure that theresistances
R, and R, in parallel in the
effective length of each wire is Same same gap a,b, of the metre
observations of these resistances separately, i.e., the length at theas it was while taking the
inserted into the binding terminals should be kept the ends of each of which is
for the null point of this parallel combination. same. Take three sets of observations
8. Record all your observations in a tabular form.
 Chapter 4 : METRE BRIDGE

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Table 4.3:For determining resistances R, R, and R
Ratio arms P, Q Unknown
Known Position of Mean
resistance
resistance null point Length Length 100 -1 unknowm
Resistance No. from B AB l BC = (100 -) S =R resistance
R.B. RQ (cm) (cm) (cm) 1

1
C
R, 2
3
1
R, 2 R, =
3.
1
R, and
2
R,
in series 3

Experimental value of parallel combination of resistances, R,

Theoretical value of parallel combination of resistances, R, RRz
R, + R,
Difference = R, -R, =.
RESULT
Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental and the theoretical values of the parallel
combination of resistances are equal. So the law of parallel combination of resistances stands verified.
PRECAUTIONS
1. All the connections should be neat and tight.
2. The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting.
3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the
uniformity of the metre bridge wire.
4. The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire and
reverse order should be followed at the time of break.
5. Move the jockey gentlv over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire.
6. The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential
for getting a null point.
7. The known resistance Rshould always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the null point
between 30-70 cm divisions.

8. The galvanometer should be shuntedby alow resistance wire to avoid excessive current and
hence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be
removedwhile getting the exact null point.
SoURCES OF ERROR
1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
2. There may be end errors due to resistances of copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire.
3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the resistance wires may get heated up and their
resistances may change.
4. The effective lengths of the wires used while measuring R, may not be exactly same as
those used while measuring R, and R, individually.

47
 A7 resistance
boxconnecting the E, S
box
on battery
is of
(keeping
almost 67
galvanometer
value
resistance. battery.
apparatusresistance
find merit K, the
V), the key
to the and
shunt of
and high(0-3 of
I
figure Connect
low the
by emf galvanometer. required
ofthe
method a voltmeter given
10
(0-
k2)
H.R.B. a Close 0deflection
the the of Connect
ERIMENT eliminator, R
Determination paper.
the
VOLTMETER is is the R.
deflection is
method
S
and E
and boxin
a K
G arrarnge series. the
keys, method sand deflection
resistance
galvanometer R
battery resistance 6.7 Note
AND half and a in
one-way deflection by Fig.
deflection K, thedivisions.
AMMETER by V/a given 6.6 with key the
galvanometer series Fig.
galvanometer.
till
P 3 two half the is wiresand from
X of R
GALVANOMETER, Q), with galvanometer in resistance
(5000S2)
E battery by with half shown R of
(0-200 galvanometer (R+
G)e connecting
box numnber
series produced resistance by
a REQUIRED RS R-S as the
resistance
of a galvanometer of
box paper.
resistance galvanometer, G= in = 10
(0-
ksQ) working with R
diagram
accordingly.
table value
resistance
the
resistance even
resistance k deflection HRB. galvanometer
method.
half-deflection
by the
6
sand of parallel
high
a of thean
Chapter merit (-) K
2)(0-200
merit. MATERIAL Gof circuit
Adjust
the of the endsG, high is
determine resistance the
lowpieceWORKING
FORMULAE of the LR.B. in
galvanometer and
of type of of neat K,
is figure CIRCUIT
DIAGRAMS S
Determination a resistance
R.
figure a R is Resistance the key Introduce open).
scale
AND ks2),a
Weston and where
0
where I-I a
The The Draw Clean and
To its (0-10
APPARATUS
wires PROCEDURE K, full
A 2. 2. 3.
1. 6.6 A. 1.
AIM Fig.
 galvanometer and
)Kydeflection
the the key Kand of 20-30 Galvanometer
resistance
S
the
key in that a number
3 0/2
steps and key
9/2 between
and See
becomes R in complete (R+
G)0 R-S
close repeating voltmeter.
box RS div
A
theKeeping voltmeter. plug G= div-1
A
S, RS R-S resistance lie G=
of Figure
ofmerit
andin deflection K, the k=
G= deflections method value
by of 0.
certain
observations
observations
resistance Insert and formula, G= (R
+
G)0
box formula, the k=
Meangalvanomter,
resistance1.e., of high of
R deflection
R. of Half2
deflection galvanometer of
terminal
G, that the
deflection (divisions) k= value
till 3,
S step the box
high galvanometer values form.
resistarnceso using
PHYSICS-XII
MANUAL
LAB lowresistance of the using a
in sets across the R tabular half Mean
S. increases.
Record +ve
obtained scale of galvanometer the
through resistance mnore resistance the Note
values
by the
it galvanometer of
to &, fromfull a of
shunt also divisions. connecting in Resistance
f
three battery a galvanometer.
connected more0
Shunt
resistance
merit Deflection
of shuntdeflection 2 0 (divisions)
(50 of value take galvanometer 5000
almost and
(2)
value galvanometer the of
of S. of by the about three R
of
S V;Figure
the increases, that of of
resistance
the value and R number is
batteryconnect merit CALCULATIONS
half battery the for values Resistance
adjustthe of so in
eactly S of of R experiment
of 6.2
resistance
of
small and valuevalues
even valuethe thethe6.7, obtained
resistance the
figure (divisions) Table
fixed, Deflection =
of of of Fig. Record
6.1 E
to deflection is tabular
form. meritE High
resistance
a R reduced the different the emf terminal
in the battery,
Introduce Calculate in
K a
series.
shown is the ANDTable
OBSERVATIONS (2)
As that thedivisions
Introduce
NOTE of the Calculate
divisions.
R
adjust Repeat the
is the Forso Figure
Find
+veAs resistance
4 High (2) of
4. 5. EMF
6. B. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. R
S.No.
S.No. 1. 4.
2 3
1. 3. 4.
68
 Chapter 6: GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

Total number of divisions on either side of zero mark of the galvanometer scale, M=
divisions

Current required for full scale deflection, I, =nk = A

RESULT
1. Resistance of galvanometer by half-deflection method, G= 2.
2. Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k = A div -l
3. Current required for full scale deflection in the galvanometer, I, =. A.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs of the two resistance boxes should be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist.
3. The value of the series resistance R should be large. This ensures correct value of G
4. The plug in the key K, should be inserted only after a resistance Rof high value has been
taken out from the resistance box otherwise the galvanometer coil may burn.
5. The value of Rshould be adjusted so that deflection is equal to an even number of
divisions. Then the value of 0/2 can be obtained exactly with shunt S.
6. To decrease the deflection in the galvanometer, the shunt resistance Sshould be decreased.
7. The emf the battery should remain constant. For this, a freshly charged battery must be
used.
8. For determining figure of merit, a iigh resistance voltmeter should be used to measure the
emf of the battery.

SoURCES OF ERROR
1. The plugs in the resistance boxes may not be clean or tight.
2. The emf of the battery may not beorstnt.
3. The divisions on the galvanometer scale may not be of equal size.

To overcome these difficulties, a small resistance S,

6 Conversion of a
Galvanometer into an Ammeter
called shunt resistance, is connected in parallel with the
galvanometer coil, so that most of the current passes
An ordinary galvanometer cannot as such be used through the shunt.
circuit.
as an ammeter to measure current in a Ammeter
This is because of two reasons : S

(i) Galvanometer is avery sensitive device, it gives

a full-scale deflection with a small current of
AU-1) (l-1)
few uA.
(1) For measuring currents, the galvanometer has A B
to be connected in series, and as it has a large
resistance, this will decrease the value of
current in the circuit. Fiq. o.8 Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter.

69
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Let G = resistance of the galvanometer Its effective resistance is

= the current with which galvanometer GS
<S
gives full scale deflection RA G+S
0-I= the required current range of the ammeter
S= shunt resistance Shunt
I-1, current through the shunt
A shunt is a low resistance which is connected in parallel
As galvanometer and shunt are connected in with a galvanometer (or ammeter) to protect it from strong
parallel, so Currents.

P.D. across the galvanometer = P.D. across the shunt Uses of shunt :
1. To prevent galvanometer
a
from being
I,G=(1-1)S or
damaged due to large current.
2. To convert a
So, by connecting a shunt of resistance S across the
galvanometer into ammeter.
3. To increase the range of an
given galvanometer, we get an ammeter of desired ammeter.
range. Hence, an ammeter is a shunted or low resistance
galvanometer.
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI|

E X PERIMENT
AIM BI
To find the value of vfor different values of uin case of aconcave mirror
its focal length. and to find
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
An optical bench with three uprights, two sharp-edged needles (one thin and one
focal length less than 20 cm, index needle/knitting needle and a half-metre scale. thick), a concave mirror of
WORKING FORMULA
The relation between the object distance u, image distance vand focal
length fof a
is given by the mirror formula, concave mirrOr
1 1 1
=-+ or f=
According to new Cartesian sign convention, u and v are both
forms a real image. Also, fis negative fora concave mirror. negative when a concave mirres
RAY DIAG RAMS

Image
M

Object
needle
(a)
Image

Image Object
needle needle

(b)
Fig. 8.12 Ray diagrams for the focal length of the
concave mirror (a) object at C(b) object between Farnd .
PROCEDURE
To find rough focal length of the concave mirror
1. Hold the concave mirror in your right hand and turn its reflecting surface towards a distant
object like a building or a tree by looking through the
window of your lab.
1lo
 Chopter 8: SPHERICAL MIRRORS
2. By slowing moving the mirror
of the object on the wall of forward/backward, obtain an inverted, clear and sharp me
the lab.
3. Keeping the zero end of the
half-metre scale towards the wall, measure the distance betwee
the mirror and the wall. This
distance gives the rouoh focal length of the concave
To mount the concave mirror mirror.
4. Place the optical bench on the
mount it vertically near one end working table. Clamp the concave mirror on an upright and
of the optical bench.
5. With a piece of chalk, mark the
approximate
on the optical bench, at distances equal to roughpositions
of focus F and centre of curvature C
respectively. focal length and twice the rough focal length,
6. Take the thin optical needle and treat it
as object needle O. Mount it in an upright
it in front of the concave mirror. AdËust its and place
in the same horizontal line.
height so that its tip and the pole of the mirror lie

7. Move the object needle Oaway from the mirror and

bring it almost at the point
slightly moving the object needle O back and forth, obtain an inverted imagemarked
C. By
of the same
size as the needle. Make slight adjustments of the height of the needle and
the mirror
inclination so that image is formed just above the object needle. This procedure ensures that
the principal axis of the mirror is parallel to the optical bench.
Tolocate the image formed by the concave mirror
8. Mournt the thick optical needle, called image needle in the third upright. Place this
upright
on the optical bench beyond C. Adjust the height of the image needle Dso that its tip lies in
the same horizontal line as the tip of the object needle. Fix a small piece of paper on the
object needle.
9. Adjust the object needle at a distance about 2 cm less than 2 f from the concave mirror. A
real, inverted and magnified image I, of this needle will be formed at a distance greater than
2 f. Adjust the image needle at the position of this image.
10. Moving the image needle I forward or backward, remove the parallax tip to tip between the
inverted image of object needle and the image needle itself. If on moving the eye sideways, the
image shifts in the direction of motion of the eye, then parallax can be removed by moving the image
needle towards the object needle and if the image shifts in the opposite direction, then parallax can be
removed by moving the image needle away from the object needle O. The position of the image needle I
gives the position of the image of the object needle.
Note that the concave mirrorforms the images of both the needles, which are conjugate foci, i.e., image
I, of one needle coincides with the second needle and image I, of second needle coincides with the
first. So when parallax is removed between the image of first needle and the second needle itself
parallax also gets removed between the image of the second needle and the first nedle itself.
11. Note the positions of the concave mirror P, object needle Oand image needle I on the optical
bench. Find the distance between the concave mirror and the object needle (PO =u), and the
distance between the concave mirror and the image needle (Pl =v).
12. By bringing the object needle about 2 cm closer to the concave mirror each time, take two
more such sets of observations. Check that the object needle lways remains between Fand C.
Note that the image moves away from the mirror as the object moVes closer to the mirror and vice versa.
13. Record all these observations in a tabular form. Find u and v in each case.
14. Write the observations at serial numbers 4-6 by just interchanging the values of u and v in
observations at serial numbers 1-3. This makes use of the property of conjugate foci.
117
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xl

To determine the index correction

15. Measure length of the knitting needle with a half-metre scale. Let it be x cm.
16. Hold the knitting needle between pole P of the concave mirror and the tip of the object
needle O. Read the distancebetweenthe two uprights on the scale on the optical bench.. Let it
be y cm. Determine the index correction (x-y)for the object distance u.
17. Now hold the knitting needle between the pole Pof the concave mirror and the tip of the
image needle 1. Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be zcm. Determine the
index correction (x-z) for the image distance v.
values of u and v. Find a
18. After adding the respective index corrections., record the corrected
focal length f in each case.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Rough focal length of the concave mirror Cm

Cm
Actual length of the knitting needle, x =
Cm
Observed distance between the mirror and the object needle, y=
Observed distance between the mirror and the image needle, z=
Cm

Cm
Index correction for object distance u, e, =X-y=
Cm
Index correction for image distance v, e, =X-Z=
Table 8.1 : Determination of u, v and f for the concave mirror
Focal
Observed Corrected distances 1
Positions of uprights distances
1 length
S.No. Concave Object Image PI = y V = v'+ e (cm ) f=
mirror P needle 0 needle I
PO = u' u = u'+ e, (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2

3
4
5.
6
7
Cm
Mean value of f =
1
NOTE Here- and values are required to be determined only for finding f bygraphical
method.

Determination of f by graphical nmethods :

1. Focal length from the graph between uandu. As per Cartesian sign convention, both uand
vare negative. Choosing a larger and same scale for both axes, plot the i-v graph by taks
LEvalues along ve X-axis and -values along -ve Y-axis. As shown in Fig. 8.13, the grap
will be a retanygular hyperbola.
NOT As the values of uand vare greater than the focal length, the origin Oshould be
given a value close to the rough focal length on both the axes which enables us to choose a
larger scale for the graph.
 Chupler 8: SPHERICAL MIRRORS

from the origin O making an |-U graph for a concave mirror

Drawa line
with the X-axis. It meets the
angle of45° -2f
graph at point P. Obviously, the 4 (cm) A
I' and ordinate at any 145
values of absicca
pointon
this line will be equal.
P, u=.
So at point
B
(-2f. - 2)P
11,1_1,1_2
(cm) v
OA
Cm
Scale :
X-axis : 1division Cm
OB Y-axis : 1division Cm
Cm Cm
2 y

Mean value of f= Cm
Fig. 8.13 u-v graph for a concave mirror.

u-Vstraight lines for a concave mirror

u (cm)
2. Focal length from vlines. Choosing
A
larger and same scales for both the axes, X X

mark the values of u along -ve X-axis and

those ofv along -ve Y-axis. Draw straight
lines joining the points u,, uy, Ug, etc; of
the X-axis and the corresponding points B

D,,y,Vq, etc ; of the Y-axis, as shown in

Fig. 8.14. (cm)
v

Within the limits of the experimental

Scale:
error, these lines meet at a common point X-axis :1div. = Cm

Q which should have Co-ordinates Y-axis :1div. = Cm

(-f,-f). Y

Fiq. 8.14 Focal length from the intersection of u-vlines.

X-cOordinate of point Q + y-coordinate of point Q

So, f= 2

OA+ OB
Cm
2

3. Focal length from the graph between and Choosing a suitable and same scale for both the
1
7

1
es, plot points taking 1 along -ve X-axis and- along -ve Y-axis. Draw the best possible straight
line through these points and produce it to intersect both the axes, as shown in Fig. 8.15. Each
1
intercept, OA on X-axis and OB on Y-axis, gives a value for

119
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI|

For a-intercept, 1 1
graph for. a
1
-0 ’f=u
concave mirror
1
¿(em)
For y-intercept,
1 1 1
-0 ’f=v
f v

() f=u= Cm
OA
1
(ii) f=v= Cm
OB
Scale:
Mean value of f = Cm
X-axis:1 div. = em
-1
1

Y-axis: 1div. = Cm

Fia, 8.15 Graph between -1 and 1

RESULT
- for a concave mior
1. Focal length of concave mirror calculated from different u and v values as f=

2. Focal length of concave mirror from uv graph, f= Cm

3. Focal length of concave mirror from uv straight lines, f=

Cm

4. Focal length of concave mirror from 1 1

graph, f=_ Cm

PRECAUTIONS
1. The principal axis of the mirror should be
bench.
horizontal and parallel to the length of the optia
2. The uprights should be rigid and vertical.
3. The tips of the object and image needles and the pole of the
mirror must be adjusted at ti
same height.
4. To locate the position of the image, the eve must be held at a
distance of about 3U cm
the image needle.
5. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle should just touch the tip of the ima_:
needle and the tips must not overlap. This helps to remove
6. The object needle should be placed
parallax tip to p ana
between and Pofthe
and Cand not between F
mirror.
7. The object needle should be a smallpiard
distinguished from the
white paper over its tip. The two needles should notimage
needle by fixing thecours
be interchanged during
experiment.
distances
8. Index corrections must be image
carefully
9. The values of u and v should not determined
and applied to object and determinatin
differ much. This minimises the errorin the
of f.

120
 Chopter 8: SPHERICAL MIRRORS
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
Parallax might not have been removed completelv.
2 Errorsmay occur in the result if the top of the optical bench is not horizontal and also if the tips
of the two optical needles and the pole of the concave mirror are not at
the same horizontal ieve

E XPERIME NT B2
AIM

To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REOUIRED
An optical bench with four uprights (for holding lens, mirror and tuo needles), a thin convex lens, a
convex mirror, two optical needles, a knitting needle and a half-metre scale.
THEORY

If we place an object Obetween Fand 2Fof a convex lens L,a real, inverted and magnified image Iis
formed at apoint C on the other side of the lens. Now a convex mirror Mis placed between the
convex lens and point Cand so adjusted that a real and inverted image I' coincides with object O. This
happens when the rays starting from object 0, after refraction through the lens, fall normally on the
convex mirror. Such normal rays are along the radiiof curvature of the convex mirror so that point C
must be the centre of curvature of the convex mirror.
To locate the point C, the convex mirror is removed without disturbing the positions of object Oand
lens LAn image needle is placed at the position of image I of object O, formed by the convex lens and
parallax is removed between the image of object O and image needle.
R PC
Then
2 Image of M
object needle O
RAY DIAGRAMS
I'
2F

R
Object
needle O
(a)

Image of object
needle O
Fig. 8.16 Image formed by
(a) convex mirror and 2F 2F
convex
lens-image I' coincides with the
object AB (b) convex
is inverted and lens-image Object Image
needle I
magnified. needle O
(b)

121
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

PROCEDURE
lens
To findthe rough focal length of the convex
Obtain a
1. Hold the convex lens in the right hand. sharp image of the sun or
on a wall (or at the back of your practical notebook). a
2. Measure the distance between the lens and the sharp image with a
half distant doie
distance gives a rough value for the focal length of the convex lens
NOTE Do not see the image of the sun directly as it may hurt your eves
i-metre sCale. Thik
To locate image obtained by using both convex lens and convex mirror
3. Place the optical bench horizontally on the working table.
4. Mount the needle O, convex lens Land the convex mirror Min
three separate
optical bernch. See that the distance of the needle Ofrom the Convex lens Lis uprights son thie
focal length of the latter. Adjust the tip of needle O, optical centre O of lens
of the mirror Mat the same height.
greaterthtehan the
Land
pole P
5. Now adjust the position of mirror Mor needle 0, if necessary, so that areal
of needle Ois formed in coincidence with the needle itself. Remove theinverted imag
between needle Oand its inverted image by adjusting the position of parallax ip to tip
mirror M. Note the
positions of object needle O, convex lens Land convex mirror M on the
optical benh.
To locate the image obtained by using convex lens only
6. Remove the mirror upright altogether without disturbing the positions of needle Oamd Lmu. t
Mount the second needle I in the fourth upright and place it on the
other side of the convex lens.
optical bench on the
7. Adjust the position of the image needle I (without
disturbing O and ) so that there is no
parallax between this needle Iand the image of needle 0. Note the position of needle Ion
the optical bench.
8. Repeat the experiment (steps 4 to 7) four times with different positions of needle Oand the
lens L Record all the observations in atabular form.
To determine the index correction

9. Again place the upright holding the mirror Mon the optical bench.
10. Using a knitting needle, determine the index correction between the back surface of the
mirror M and the image needle I.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCU LATIONS
Rough focal length of the convex lens = Cm

Actual lerngth of the knitting needle, x= Cm

Observed length of the knitting needle between the convex mirror and theimage needle,
cm

Index correction, e=X-y= Cm

122
 Chapter 8: SPHERICAL
Table 8.2:
MIRRORS
Determination of the radius of curvature of the Convex mirror
Position of
Object Convex Convex Observed radius Corrected radius
needle 0 lens 0'
SNO.
(cm) (cm)
mirror P Image
needle I
of curvature
R' = PI
of curvature
(cm) (cm)
R =R'+e
1
(cm) (cm)

Mean value of radius of curvature of the

R convex mirror, R= Cm
Focal length, f= Cm

RESULT
Focal length of the given convex mirror =
Cm
PRECAUTIONS
1. The apertures of the convex lens and the convex mirror
image formed will be distorted. should be small, otherwise the
2. The focal length of the
convex lens should be greater than that of the
3. The distance between the convex mirror.
convex lens and the convex mirror must be kept
needle must lie between f and 2 f of the convex lens. small. The object
4. All the uprights should beertical,
5. The tips of the object and image
needles, optical centre of the lens and the pole of the convex
mirror should be at theame height.
6. Parallax should be removed iip o tip.
7. While removing parallax, the eye should be
kept at least 30 cm away from the image needle.
8. While removing parallax in the second part of
the
convex mirror), the positions of object needles and theexperiment
(i.e., after removing the
convex lens should not be altered,
9. Index correction must be carefully determined and
correctly applied.
SoURCES OF ERROR
1. The principal axis of the convex lens may not be parallel to the length of the optical
bench.
2. The uprights may not b e a l .
3. Parallax might not have been removed completely.
4. While removing the convex mirror, the positions of the uprights holding the object needle
and the convex lens might have been disturbed.

VIVA VOCE
A.
of a DetConcave
ermination of Focal Length 2. \n nident rav is retlected bachwards What is the
1. What is a Mirror gle ot nidene
0°, incident ray is reflected backward only when it
A mirror?
polished strikes the retlecting surtace normally.
of light is surface which causes a regular reflection
called a
mirror.
123