EXPERIMENT REPORT 1

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE, CAPACITENCE, INDUCTANCE

AND RESONANT FREQUENCIES OF RLC USING OSCILLOSCOPE

I. Experiment Motivation:
- Understand the typical circuit
- Learn how to use electrical equipment including oscilloscope and function generator
- Improving experimental skill

II.THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1. RLC circuit

An RLC circuit (also known as a resonant circuit or a tuned circuit) is a typical one
consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor (C), connected in series or in
parallel (figure 1).
R R

E  L E  C L

C
Figure 1. Series (left) and parallel (right) RLC circuit

RLC circuits have many applications particularly for oscillating circuits and in radio and
communication engineering. Every RLC circuit consists of two components: a power
source and resonator. Likewise, there are two types of resonators – series LC and parallel
LC. The expressions for the bandwidth in the series and parallel configuration are
inverses of each other. This is particularly useful for determining whether a series or
parallel configuration is to be used for a particular circuit design. However, in circuit
analysis, usually the reciprocal of the latter two variables is used to characterize the
system instead. They are known as the resonant frequency and the damping factor (or the
Q factor) respectively.
The undamped resonance or natural frequency of an LC circuit (in radians per second) is
given by:
0  1 (1)
lC
In the more familiar unit hertz (or inverse seconds), the natural frequency becomes,
 1
f  0  (2)
0
2 2 lC
Resonance occurs in RLC circuit when the complex impedance ZLC of the LC resonator
becomes zero,
ZLC = ZL + ZC = 0 (3)
Then 0 becomes exactly the resonant frequency of RLC circuit.
The damping factor of the circuit (in radians per second) for a series RLC circuit is,
R
 (4)
2L
and for a parallel RLC circuit:
1
 (5)
2RC
For applications in oscillator circuits, it is generally desirable to make the damping factor
as small as possible, or equivalently, to increase the quality factor (Q) as much as
possible. In practice, this requires decreasing the resistance R in the circuit to as small as
physically possible for a series circuit, and increasing R to as large a value as possible for
a parallel circuit. In this case, the RLC circuit becomes a good approximation to an ideal
LC circuit.
In this experiment, the RLC circuit will be investigated by an oscilloscope. Using this
equipment we can determine the resistance of a resistor, capacity of a capacitor, and
inductivity of a coil as well as the resonant frequency of a series and a parallel RLC
circuit.
II. EXPERMENTAL PROCEDURE

A. Preparation

1.1 Learn to know the way of using oscilloscope.

1.2 Learn to know the way of using function generator.
1.3. Learn to know the way of using BNC connection and measurement probs.

B. Measurement of resistance, capacitance, and inductance

1. Resistance measurement of unknown resistor

1.1. Connect all the terminals using the banana plug cords and install resistance box
(denoted as R0) and unknown resistor RX based on the circuit layout shown in figure 7.
1.2. Switch to power on FG. Choose the frequency range of 1K (using button group 3)
and sine waveform (using button 4). Adjust knobs 8 and 9 to set an initial measurement
frequency of about 500 Hz (or 1000 Hz).
1.3. Switch to power on OS. Observe to see a trace in the form of a illuminated vertical
line displayed on the screen.
 A A RX
Y
OS
FG 8020H X5020C

B B R0 C C

Figure 7. Circuit layout for measurement of resistance, capacity, and inductivity

1.4. Regulating the resistance box R0 so that the trace displayed on screen of OS becomes
a diagonal line. Then, UX = UY = URo that is,
RX = R0 (18)
Make a data table (denoted table 1) then record the value of frequency f and the
respective value of R0 in it.
Note: the resistance box R0 are regulated by turning up its knobs with the order from
greater range (thousands ohm) to smaller one (ohm or one tenths ohm), respectively.
1.5. Repeat the experimental procedure with other frequencies (may be either 1000, and
1500 Hz or 1500, and 2000 Hz).
1.6. Turn off OS and FG; turn down the knobs of the changeable resistor R0 to zero
positions and uninstall the resistor RX from the measurement circuit in order to prepare
for next measurement.

2. Capacitance measurement of unknown capacitor

2.1. Install the unknown capacitor CX at the position of the measured resistor RX as
shown in figure 7.
2.2. Switch to power on FG. Choose the frequency range of 10K (using button group 3)
and sine waveform (using button 4). Adjust knobs 8 and 9 to set an initial measurement
frequency of about 1000 Hz.
2.3. Switch to power on OS. Observe to see a trace in the form of illuminated upright
oval displayed on the screen. For convenient and exact observing, adjust knobs 7 and 10
to move the oval trace so that its center is coincided with the center of the coordinate axes
of the screen.
2.4. Regulating the resistance box R0 so that the oval trace becomes a circle.
Make a data table (denoted table 2) then record the value of frequency f and the
respective value of R0 in it.

Note: Regulating the resistance box R0 by turning up its knobs with the order from
greater range (thousands ohm) to smaller one (ohm or one tenths ohm), respectively.

2.5. Complete the table 2 by performing this manipulation for more 2 times according to
2 different frequencies (may be either 1500, and 2000 Hz or 2000, and 3000 Hz).
2.6. Turn off OS and FG; turn down the knobs of resistance box R0 to zero positions, and
uninstall the capacitor CX from the board in order to prepare for next measurement.
3. Inductance measurement of unknown coil

3.1. Install the unknown coil LX at the position of the measured resistor R X as shown in
figure 7.
3.2. Switch to power on FG. Choose the frequency range of 10K (using button group 3)
and sine waveform (using button 4). Adjust knobs 8 and 9 to set an initial measurement
frequency of about 10.000 Hz.
3.3. Switch to power on OS. Observe to see a trace in the form of illuminated upright
oval displayed on the screen. For convenient and exact observing, adjust knobs 7 and 10
to move the oval trace so that its center is coincided with the center of the coordinate axes
of the screen
3.4. Regulating the resistance box R0 so that the oval trace becomes a circle.
Make a data table (denoted table 3) then record the value of frequency f and the
respective value of R0 in it.
Note: Regulating the resistance box R0 by turning up its knobs with the order from
greater range (thousands ohm) to smaller one (ohm or one tenths ohm), respectively.
3.5. Complete the table 3 by performing this manipulation for more 2 times according to
2 different frequencies (may be either 15.000, and 20.000 Hz or 20.000, and 30.000 Hz).
3.6. Turn off OS and FG; turn down the knobs of the resistance box R0 to zero positions,
at last, uninstall the coil LX from the board in order to prepare for next measurement.

C. Determination of resonant frequency of RLC circuit

1. Series RLC circuit

1.1. Connect all the terminals using the banana plug cords, and install the resistance box
R0, the measured capacitor CX, and coil LX based on the circuit layout shown in figure 8.

A A R0

X OS 5020C
FG 8020H LX

Set a value of 1000 Ohm for R0.

B B CX

Figure 8. Series RLC circuit layout for measurement of resonant frequency

1.2. Switch to power on FG. Choose the frequency range of 100K (using button group 3)
and sine waveform (using button 4).
1.3. Switch to power on OS. Observe to see to see an inclined oval trace displayed on the
screen of OS.
1.4. Regulating the knobs 8 and 9 of FG to change the generated frequency so that. The
oval trace becomes an inclined line.
Make a data table (denoted table 4) then record the values of resonant frequency fserries in
it.
1.5. Repeat the experimental procedure for more 2 times.
1.6. Turn off OS and FG and uninstall the capacitor CX from the measurement circuit in
order to prepare for next measurement.

2. Parallel RLC circuit

2.1. 1.1. Connect all the terminals using the banana plug cords, and install the resistance
box R0, the measured capacitor CX, and coil LX based on the circuit layout shown in figure

A A R0

Y
XOS 5020C
FG 8020H LX
CX

9. Set a value of 1000 Ohm for R0.

B B

Figure 9. Parallel RLC circuit layout for measurement of resonant frequency

2.2. Switch to power on FG. Choose the operational regimes similarly part 1.
2.3. Switch to power on OS. Observe to see if an oblique ellipsoid occurs on the screen.
1.3. Switch to power on OS. Observe to see to see an inclined oval trace displayed on the
screen of OS.
1.4. Regulating the knobs 8 and 9 of FG to change the generated frequency so that. The
oval trace becomes an inclined line.
Insert an additional column in table 4 then record the values of resonant frequency fparallel
in it.
2.5. Repeat the experimental procedure for more 2 times.
2.6. Turn off OS and FG and uninstall the resistance box R0, capacitor CX and coil LX
from the measurement circuit. At last, put all the devices in order.

3. REQUIREMENTS

3.1. Before doing the experiment

Read carefully the instruction to understand:

- the structure and operational principle of oscilloscope, the way to connect OS with a
circuit and to manage the signal trace displayed on the oscilloscope’s screen.
- the way to connect FGs with a circuit and to change the signal forms as well as their
frequencies.

3.2. After doing the experiment

Complete the experimental report with the following requirements:

- Calculate the unknown resistance.
- Calculate the unknown capacitance
when UC = UX = UY = URo it leads to
Z X 1
 R0 (19)
2 . f
.CX

Hence: 1
CX  (20)
2 . f
- Calculate the unknown inductance
.R0
when, UC = UX = UY = URo it results in,
ZL  2 . f .LX  R0 (21)

Hence: R0
LX  (22)
2 .
f

- Compare the measured value of series and parallel resonant frequency together and. also
with the predicted value using eq. (2) where L and C are the calculated capacitance and
inductance as suggested in eq. (20) and (22).

II.Experiment Result:
1.Resistance Measurement:
Trial f (Hz) R0 (Ω)
1 500 1300
2 1500 2200
3 2000 2200

2.Capacitance Measurement:
Trial f (Hz) R0 (Ω)
1 1000 251
2 1500 170
3 2000 130

3.Inductance Measurement
Trial f (Hz) R0 (Ω)
1 10000 230
 2 20000 460
3 30000 700

4.Determination of Resonant Frequency:

Trial Series RLC (Hz) Parallel RLC (Hz)
1 1050 1030
2 1049 1040
3 1051 1040

III. Data Analysis:

1.Resistance Measurement:
We have R X =R0
3
1
R x = ∑ R xi=1.90 ×103 ( Ω )
3 i=1
ΔRx =0.00 ( Ω )
Hence:
3
R X =( 1.90 ± 0.00 ) × 10 ( Ω )

2.Capacitence Measurement:
1 1
Z x= =R0 ⇒ C X =
2 πf C X 2 πf R0
−7
C 1=6.34 ×10 ( F )
−7
C 2=6.24 ×10 ( F )
−7
C 3=6.12 ×10 ( F )
3
1
C x = ∑ C xi=6.23 ×10−7 ( F )
3 i=1

√
3
1
Δ C X= ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
3 i=1
Hence:
−7
C X = ( 6.23± 0.09 ) ×10 ( F )

3.Inductance Measurement:
R0
Z L =2 πf . L X =R 0 ⇒ L X =
2 πf
−3
L1=3.66 ×10 ( H )
L2=3.66 ×10−3 ( H )
−3
L3=3.71 ×10 ( H )
3
1
L X = ∑ L Xi=3.68 ×10−3 ( H )
3 i=1

√
3
1
3∑
2
Δ LX= ( L Xi−L X ) =0.02 ×10−3 ( H )
i=1

Hence:
 −3
L X =( 3.68 ±0.02 ) ×10 ( H )

4.Determination of Resonant Frequency:

a. Series RLC Circuit:
3
1
f X= ∑ f =1050 ( Hz )
3 i=1 xi

√
3
1
Δ f X = ∑ ( f Xi −f X ) =1 ( Hz )
2
3 i=1
Hence:
f X− Series=1050 ± 1 ( Hz )

b./Parallel RLC Circuit:

3
1
f X= ∑ f xi=1037 ( Hz )
3 i=1

√
3
1
3∑
2
Δ f X= ( f Xi −f X ) =5 ( Hz )
i=1

Hence:
f X−¿ =1037 ±5 ( Hz )

c./Theoretical Result and Conclusion

1
f X= =3324 ( Hz )
2 π √ LX CX

√( )( )
2 2
−1 Δ LX −1 Δ C X
Δ f X =f X . + . =26 ( Hz )
2 LX 2 CX
Hence:
f X−Theoretical =3324 ±25 ( Hz )

Such result has the approximation error of 7.3%, which is reasonable

for an approximation
 We can see that:
The theoretical result of resonant frequency is approximately equal
to the
directly measured results. We can see that the RLC circuit (with
properly
small resistance) becomes a good approximation to an ideal LC
circuit.
 Experiment Report 2

MEASUREMENT OF MAGNETIC FIELD

INSIDE A SOLENOID WITH FINITE LENGTH

I. EXPERIMENT MOTIVATION

- Investigate the magnetic field at a position along the axis of solenoid

- Investigate the relationship between the magnetic field and the current
through the solenoid

II. Experimental Procedure

There are three measurements you should make.

a) Investigation of the magnetic field at the positions along the axis

of solenoid - B(x)
1. Place the axial probe so that one end of solenoid is corresponding
to the position 0 of the linear rule attached with the probe.
2. Set the voltage of power supply to 3 V.
3. Turn on the solenoid power supply and Teslameter. Record the
initial value of current shown on ammeter and magnetic field shown
on Teslameter.
4. Measure the relationship B(x) by slowly moving the axial probe
every 1 cm between 0 to 30cm.
Make a data table (denoted table 1) then record the corresponding
values of position x and magnetic field shown on Teslameter in it.

b) Measurement of the relationship between the magnetic field

and the current through the solenoid - B(I)
1. Place and fix the axial probe at the center of the coil
(corresponding to the position of x = 15 cm).
2. Measure the relationship B(I) for several values of power supply
from 3V up to 12V. Make a data table (denoted table 2) then record
the values of current I shown on Ampermeter and magnetic field
shown on Tesla-meter in this table corresponding to the different
positions.

C) Comparison of experimental and theoretical magnetic field

1. Varying the rheostat so that the value of current shown on
ammeter is 0.4 A, then fix this current.
 2. Make a data table (denoted table 3) then record the values of the
magnetic field shown on Tesla-meter in this table corresponding to
the different positions axial probe at 0 cm, 15cm and 30cm in it.

III. EXPERIMENT RESULTS

1. Investigation of the magnetic field at the position along the axis of
solenoid – B(x)

I = 0.2 (A)
x (cm) B (mT) x (cm) B (mT) x (cm) B (mT)
1 0.76 11 1.01 21 1.00
2 0.87 12 1.01 22 1.00
3 0.93 13 1.01 23 1.00
4 0.96 14 1.01 24 0.99
5 0.98 15 1.01 25 0.98
6 0.99 16 1.01 26 0.97
7 1.00 17 1.01 27 0.94
8 1.00 18 1.01 28 0.89
9 1.00 19 1.01 29 0.79
10 1.00 20 1.01 30 0.55
2.Measurement of the relationship betweenthe magnetic field and
the current through the solenoid – B(I)

x = 15 (cm)
I (A) B (mT)
0.20 1.02
0.25 1.24
0.30 1.42
0.35 1.65
0.40 1.88
0.45 2.11
0.50 2.40
0.55 2.66
0.60 2.84

3.Comparison of experimental and theoretical magnetic field

I = 0.4 (A)
x (cm) B (mT)
0 0.9
15 1.91
30 1.04
III.DATA ANALYSIS
1. Relationship between the magnetic field and the position of the
probe inside the solenoid

B(mT)

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 x (cm) 35

Comment: The graph show that the magnetic field inside a solenoid
depends on the position of the probe inside. The magnitude of the
magnetic field increase from x=1to x=7, and then stable until x=23, then
decrease with exact the same pace as it increase. The graph is symmetric
around the point x=15 (cm)

2. Relationship between the magnetic field and the applied

voltage
 B (mT)
3

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 I (A)

Comment: The graph shows that the magnitude of the magnetic field
and the ampere has a linear relationship. But in this case, the resistance is
unchanged, so the current also has linear relationship with the ampere.
So, we can see that relationship between the magnetic field and the
applied current is also linear
3. Comparison of experimental and theoretical magnetic field

We have:
μ0 μ r
B= I n ( cos γ 1−cos γ 2 )
2 0 0
In this case, μ0 =1
N 750
n 0= = =2500
L 300 ×10−3
I 0=I √ 2=0.4 √ 2=0.566 ( A )
x
cos γ 1= 2 2
√ R +x
−L−x
cos γ 2= 2
√ R +( L−x )2
D 40.3
R= = =20.2 ( mm )
2 2

+) x=0 ( cm ) :cos γ 1=0 ;cos γ 2 =−0.998

μ0 μ r
B= I n ( cos γ 1−cos γ 2 )
2 0 0
−6
1.256× 10
¿ × 0.566 ×2500 × ( 0+ 0.998 )=0.89 ( T )
2
+) x=15 ( cm ) : cos γ 1=0.991 ;cos γ 2=−0.991
μ0 μ r
B= I n ( cos γ 1−cos γ 2 )
2 0 0
1.256× 10−6
¿ × 0.566 ×2500 × ( 0.991+ 0.991 )=1.76 ( T )
2

+) x=30 ( cm ) :cos γ 1=0.998 ;cos γ 2=0

μ0 μ r
B= I n ( cos γ 1−cos γ 2 )
2 0 0
1.256× 10−6
¿ × 0.566 ×2500 × ( 0.998−0 ) =0.89 ( T )
2

Comparison between theoretical values and experimental values

x (cm) Btheoretical (mT) Bexperimental (mT)
0 0.89 0.9
15 1.76 1.91
30 0.89 1.04
The result from the experiment is approximately close the
theoretical values. The difference is due to the instrumental and
environmental uncertainty.
 Experimental Report 3
INDUCTOR AND FREE OSCILLATION IN RLC CIRCUIT
I. Experiment Motivations

- Understanding the current across an inductor-resistor and

RLC circuit.
- Calculating the energy of the oscillation RLC circuit.

II. Experimental result

Part 1: Resistance and Inductance of the coil
a. Without core

VS = 1.00 (V)
I0 = 0.18 (A)
Slope value S = 794

The resistance of the coil:

V S 1.00
R L= = =5.56 ( Ω )
I O 0.18

Coil inductance :
VS 1.00 −3
L W / O= = =7.41 ×10 ( H )
I O × S 0.17 × 794
b.
With core
 VS = 1.00 (V)
I0 = 0.17 (A)
Slope value S = 149

The resistance of the coil :

V S 1.00
R L= = =5.88 ( Ω )
I O 0.17

Coil inductance :
VS 1.00 −3
LW = = =39.5 ×10 ( H )
I O × S 0.17 ×149

Explain: After putting the core inside the coil, the coil’s inductance is
significantly increase (from 7.41 mH to 39.5 mH). This phenomenon
occurred because the core has higher permeability than the air, so
magnetic field can be transferred through the core easier, thus the
 coil inductance increase.
Part 2: Free oscillation of the RLC circuit
a. Frequency
The current in RLC circuit:

T = 0.0017 (s)
1.00
L W / O= (H)
0.17 ×794
−6
C=10 ×10 ( F )
The frequency based on the graph:
1 1
f measured = = =588.23 ( Hz )
T 0.0017
The
frequency based on theoretical calculation:
1 1
f prediction= = =584.73 ( Hz )

Comparison:
2 π √ LW / O C
2π
√ 1.00
0.17 ×794
×10 ×10−6

Δ f =f prediction −f measured =584.73−588.23=−3.50 ( Hz )

b.
Energy
The total energy in RLC circuit:
1 2 1 2
U =U c + U L = C V + L I
2 2
Comment:
- After stopping the electric power, the energy of the circuit does
not decrease rapidly to zero, it reduces to zero over a short
period of time.
- The energy oscillations of the coil and the capacitor are damped
oscillations.
Explain:
- The energy of the circuit loses by the heat of the resistor at rate
2
i R
- The graph of total energy is steepest at the time that the
magnetic energy reaches a local maximum because in these
times, the current through the coil is the highest, and the loss of
energy is mainly due to the resistance of the coil ( ΔQ=i 2 R ).
 Experimental Report 4
VERIFICATION OF FARADAY’S LAW OF
ELETROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

I/ Experiment Motivations
- Verify Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

II/ Background
Michael Faraday was one of the first scientists to show that electricity
can be produced from magnetism. The essence of his discovery is
described in the following statement:
A changing magnetic field in the presence of a conductor induces a
voltage in the conductor. For example, if a coil of wire is near a magnet,
and the magnetic field of the magnet somehow changes, there will be a
voltage across the coil of wire as a result. How do you change the
magnetic field of a magnet? Can the magnetic field be turned on and off
like a light bulb? The answer is ‘no’ (at least for permanent magnets).
However, you can change the magnetic field in the presence of the coil
of wire by moving the magnet relative to the coil, or moving the coil
relative to the magnet. Because electricity is induced by a changing
magnetic field, this process is called electromagnetic induction. It’s the
concept behind the electric generator (and countless other electrical
devices). Faraday discovered several factors that determine how much
voltage is induced. One is the strength of the magnetic field. A second is
how fast the magnetic field changes. Another factor is the number of
turns (loops) of wire that are in the coil.
III/ Procedure
3.1 Preview Use a Voltage sensor to measure the voltage across a coil
of wire as a bar magnet moves through the coil of wire. Use the
Science Workshop 750 and Data Studio to record and display the
voltage. Examine the graph of voltage versus time to determine the
amount of voltage. Compare the voltage for coils that have different
numbers of turns of wire.
3.2 Science Workshop Setup 1. Turn on Computer and then the
Science Workshop 750 2. Set Data studio. The file is set to measure
voltage 100 times per second (100 Hz). 3. Plug a Voltage sensor into
chanel A of Science Workshop 750.
3.3 Equipment Setup 1. Set up the coil that has the least number of
turns of wire so that you can drop a bar magnet vertically through the
center of the coil. 2. Connect the Voltage sensor to the
coil terminals. 3. Place a protective pad or cushion underneath the coil to
catch the bar magnet after it falls through the coil. (Be careful to leave enough
room under the coil so the magnet can fall completely through the coil before
it reaches the pad or cushion).

IV/ Experimental

result 1)1200 turn

coil

R = 12 (Ω); L = 12 (mH)
Pole Voltage Voltage
Peak 1 Peak 2
North -0.300 0.208
South -0.226 0.268
North-South -0.811 0.710
North-North -0.908 -0.776
South-South -0.663 1.106
Graph

North
South

North- south
North- North

South- South
2)150 turn
coil

R = 0.4 (Ω); L = 1 (mH)

Pole Voltage Peak 1 Voltage
Peak 2
North -0.046 0.035
 South -0.029 0.042
North- -0.104 0.096
South
North- -0.129 0.105
North
South- -0.096 0.169
South
Graph

North
 South

North-
South

North-North
 South-South
V/Comment and Explanation

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

A voltage is induced in a circuit whenever relative motion exists between a

conductor and a magnetic field and that the magnitude of this voltage is
proportional to the rate of change of the flux

So, we have:

+) Comparison between the first voltage peak and second voltage peak:

-The two voltage peak has opposite sign corresponding to the direction of
the magnetic field line’s rate and direction of change. According to
Faraday’s Law, the induced electromotive force acts in the direction that
opposes the change in magnetic flux.
 -Also, the magnitude of second voltage peak is greater than that of the first
peak.This can be explained by the motion of the magnet bar. When the
magnet is released to fall through the coil, its motion is free fall. Therefore,
the velocity of the bottom pole when it falls through the coil is larger than
that of the top pole. This means the change in magnetic field increases in
time, and according to the Faraday’s Law above,
this result in the greater magnitude of the second
peak.

+) The shape of the graph

-Both graphs are approximately symmetric about the point when

(rate of change of the magnetic field flux equals zero). This can be
explained by Faraday’s law, which states that the induced voltage
through the wire induces a current that creates a magnetic flux in the
direction opposing the change in flux, and the fact that the magnetic
field line going in/out the north and the south pole of the magnet are
exactly the same.

+) Comparison between two coil

-The maximum voltage for the coil with more turns is higher than the
one with fewer turn, because the magnitude of voltage is proportional
to the number of turns in the coil, as shown in the equation:
Experimental Report 5
INVESTIGATION OF TRANSMISSION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE (MICROWAVE)

Objective
Evaluation of both qualitative and quantitative results of transmitting and
receiving
microwave.
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE EXPERIMENT AND INSTRUMENTS
Microwaves are radio waves belonging to electro-magnetic (EM) ones whose
wavelengths are conveniently measured in small numbers of centimeters
corresponding to the radio spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0
gigahertz (GHz) to 30 GHz. The small wavelength of microwaves allows
conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be
pointed directly at the receiving antenna.
Microwave radio transmission is commonly used:
- in point-to-point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite
communications, and in deep space radio communications;
- for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio astronomy.

In this experiment, the transmission and receive of electro-magnetic (EM) waves,

actually
microwave will be investigated qualitatively and quantitatively. The components
and equipment included allow for various experiments to be performed. A
narrow beam of electro-magnetic waves with wavelength in the cm range
(microwaves) in the form of square signal is generated by the control unit that
can be output by a transmitter and picked up using the accessories such as horn
antenna or the sensor probe. The modulation of the receiver signal can be
rendered audible by means of an internal speaker and the intensity of the signal
can also be controlled.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Investigation of straight-line propagation of microwaves
2. Investigation of penetration of microwaves
3. Investigation of screening and absorption of microwaves
4. Investigation of reflection of microwaves
5. Investigation of refraction of microwaves
6. Investigation of diffraction of microwaves
7. Investigation of interference of microwaves
8. Investigation of polarization of microwaves

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT
1. Investigation of straight-line propagation of microwaves
Observation:
Distance from Voltage (V)
transmission
to plate holder (mm)
455 1,836
441 1,940
 430 1,957
423 1,979
412 1,982

 When the receiver is align with the rail (the transmitter and receiver are
facing each other), the volt-meter shows the maximum value.
 When the receiver move far from the rail (in a plane perpendicular to the
rail), the value of volt-meter decreases.

Conclusion:
 Microwave propagates best in straight line.
2. Investigation of penetration of microwaves

Observation:
With the absorption V = 1,375
plate
Without the absorption V = 1,494
plate

 When a dry absorption plate (electrical insulator) is put between

transmitter and receiver, the volt-meter slightly decrease

Conclusion:
● Microwave can penetrate through the dry absorption plate.
● Not all of the microwave will penetrate through the dry absorption plate, a
part of them will be absorbed by the absorption plate.

3. Investigation of screening and absorption of microwaves

Observation:
With the reflection plate V = 0,024
With the absorption V = 1,494
plate
Without both of them V = 1,659
  When a reflection plate (electrical conductor) is put between transmitter
and receiver, the volt-meter shows a value that very small compared to
the value when the absorb plate is absent. In this case, the volt-meter
show a value approximate 0 (0.01).
Conclusion:
 Most of microwave will not go through the reflection plate.

4. Investigation of reflection of microwaves

Observation:
Reflector angle (o) Incidence angle
(o)
30 55
40 78
50 102
60 122

 When the arrow is the bisector of 2 rails (the reflector angle is equal to the
incidence angle), the volt-meter shows maximum value.

Conclusion:
 Microwave reflects best when perpendicular bisector of the reflection
plate is the bisector of an angle created by the transmitter and
receiver.
 When the microwave reflects, the angle of incidence equals the angle of
reflection.

5. Investigation of refraction of microwaves

Observation:
 When the angle is 80o , the volt-meter shows the maximum value (V =
1,997).
 Asturning the receiver to different angle, the value of volt-meter
decreases.

Conclusion:
 Microwave refracts best with angle of 80 o
6. Investigation of diffraction of microwaves
Observation:
Angle (o) Signal
155 0,164
138 0,084

 When the single slit plane is put in the rail, the value on the volt metter
increase
 When the plate is between the probe and the transmitter, the value on the
volt meter í approximate 0. When the probe í moved on the horizontal
plane, the value slightly increase
Conclusion:
 Microwaves has diffraction properties.

7. Investigation of interference of microwaves

Observation:
 When the probe is moved parallel to the plate, the value on the volt meter
is oscillating. Number of maxima = 3
Conclusion:
 Microwave has property of interference.

8. Investigation of polarization of microwaves

Observation:
 When the grating is aligned horizontally, the value on the volt meter is
slightly decreasing
 When the grating is aligned vertically, the value on the volt meter is
approx. zero
 When the grating is aligned at 45 o, the value on the volt meter is higher
than vertical case, but lower than horizontal case
Conclusion:
 When we put a polarization grating between transmitter and receiver, the
microwave (electromagnetic) will be polarized as shown in fig 1.
 Because the vertical wave is electric wave, and the receiver’s signal we
receiver is Voltage. Therefore:
 With vertical polarization grating, only the vertical wave can go through.
The receiver’s signal is big.
 With horizontal polarization grating, only the horizontal wave can go
through. The receiver’s signal is very small (approximate to 0).
 With 45o inclined polarization grating, a part of vertical wave and
horizontal wave can go through. The receiver’s signal is smaller than when
we use vertical polarization grating and bigger than when we use
horizontal polarization grating.

9. Determining wavelength of standing waves

f x1 (mm) x2 (mm) x = x1 - x2
1 260 241 19
2 220 202 18
3 193 172 21
3
1
x= ∑ x =19,33(mm)
3 i=1 i

√
3

∑ (x ¿¿ i−x )2
i=1
∆ x= =1,25( mm)¿
3
λ=2 × x=2 ×19,33=38,66(mm)

∆ λ=∆ x=1,25(mm)

Hence
 λ=λ ± ∆ λ=38,66 ± 1,25(mm)

Frequency of the microwave:

c 3 × 108 9
f= = −3
=7,77 × 10 ( Hz )
λ 38,6 ×10

Hence
∆ f =f
√( λ )( )
∆ λ 2 ∆c 2
+
c
=0,26 ×109 (Hz)

9
f =f ± ∆ f =(7,77 ± 0,26)×10 ( Hz )

Experimental Report 6
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT RATIO OF AIR
BASED ON CLEMENT DESORME'S METHOD
I. EXPERIMENT MOTIVATION
To determine the specific heat ratio γ=Cp /Cv for air.

II. EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE

 • Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram in Fig.1.
• Make a Data Table consisting of 5 columns.
• Add air to the flask by pumping using the rubber ball. Close the clamp and
measure the height difference in the manometer H. Waite a while (about 5
min) until the temperature inside and outside of the flask is equal, then
record this value in the second column of the data table.
• Open another clamp to let the air out of the flask. In this step observe
carefully the level of two water columns, when they have the same height
then must close the clamp at once.
• Allow the system to warm up until the manometer indicates no further
change in pressure. Read and record the positions of water level in pipes – l1
and l2 shown by the manometer as well as the height difference h in the
third, fourth and fifth column in the data table, repectively.
• Repeat these steps for a total of 10 times and record the corresponding
values of H, h1, h2 and Δh in the same data table as suggested above
Note: the value of H should be kept constant during experiment.

III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

1. Measurement result:

H = 245mm
Trial L1 (mm) L2 (mm) h = L2 – L1

1 197 262 65
2 198 262 64
 3 200 261 61
4 199 261 62
5 200 261 61
6 199 266 61
7 200 262 52
8 200 263 63
9 198 260 62
10 199 262 63
10
1
h= ∑ h =62.4(mm)
10 i=1 i
L1=199 L2=¿ 262

The uncertain of h

√
10

Δh= ∑ (hi ¿−h)2 1.28(mm)

i=1
=¿ ¿
10

Hence

h=h ± ∆ h=62.4 ±1.28

2. Calculation

H
- The formula: γ = H−h
262
γ= =1.31
262−62.4
Since H is const, therefore :

√( )
2
∆h
∆ γ =γ =0.03
h

Hence:

γ=γ ± ∆ γ=1.31 ± 0.03

- Theoretically, we can calculate the specific heat ratio of air by using the
i+2
formula γ= i where i=5is the Degree of Freedom (DOF) of ideal gas (in
this case it is air). So we get:

i+2 5+ 2
γ= = =1.40
i 5

- The experiment result is a bit different from the theoretical result due to
instrumental uncertainty, observational uncertainty and environmental
uncertainty.