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Aim:
Theory:
V I
V= IR
Where R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the
conductors. A graph between the potential difference (V) and the current (I) must be
straight line
R = V / I ohm
= R D2 /4L Ω m
= R X 0.096X10-6 Ω m
Procedure:
❖ Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the
insulations, if any.
❖ Neat, clean and tight connections are made according to the circuit
diagram.
❖ The least count of Voltmeter and ammeter is determined and the Zero error
is also noted if any.
❖ The key K is inserted and rheostat contact is slided and we should ensure
that voltmeter and ammeter is working properly.
❖ The nob is turned at 2V in the battery eliminator and the constant point in
rheostat is put at fixed position. The reading in voltmeter and ammeter is
recorded.
❖ Without disturbing the rheostat, turn the nob of the battery to different
voltage such that 4,6,8,10 and 12 V and corresponding readings in
voltmeter and ammeter is recorded.
❖ At least 5 sets of independent reading are taken.
Result:
Table 1:
R = V/I
S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Ammeter readings (I)
ohm (Ω)
1
CALCULATION:
Table 2:
R = V/I
S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Ammeter readings (I)
ohm (Ω)
1
CALCULATION:
2. TO VERIFY THE LAWS OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES-
Aim:
Apparatus Required:
Formula:
Where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and L is the
length of the metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
Procedure:
Result:
❖ The screw gauge may have faults like backlash error and wrong pitch.
Circuit Diagram:
Unknown
Known Length length Mean
Resistance Resistance
coil S No resistance (ɭ) (100 -ɭ) Resistance
X
Ω cm cm Ω Ω
R1 2
R2 2
1
R1 & R2 in
2
Series
3
3. TO COMPARE THE EMF OF TWO CELLS – POTENTIOMETRE
Aim:
Apparatus Required:
Formula:
Where E1 and E2 are the EMF of two given cells and l1 and l2 are the
corresponding balancing lengths on potentiometer wire.
Procedure:
❖ The insulations are removed from the ends of the connecting copper wires
with a sand paper.
❖ Measure the EMF (E) of the battery and the EMF’s (E1 and E2) of the cells.
It is seen that E > E1 and E > E2.
❖ Connection are given as in circuit diagram.
❖ Press the jockey at the zero end and note the direction of deflection in the
galvanometer. The jockey at the other end of the potentiometer is pressed.
If the direction of deflection is opposite to that in the first case, the
connections are correct.
❖ Slide the jockey gently over the potentiometer wires till a point is obtained
where the galvanometer shows no deflection.
❖ The length is noted of the wire for the cell E1. The current is also noted as
indicated in the ammeter, with all knobs as zero in the resistance box.
❖ Disconnect the cell E1 by removing the plug from gap ac of two – way key
and the cell E2 is connected by inserting plug into gap bc of two – way key
and steps 5 to 7 are repeated for E2 and find l2.
❖ The observations are repeated alternately for each cell again for the same
value of current.
❖ Increase the current by adjusting the rheostat and atleast three sets of
observations are obtained in a similar way.
Result:
Sources of Errors:
Circuit Diagram:
3
4. CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER
Aim:
To convert the given galvanometer of known resistance and figure of merit into
voltmeter of 4 desired range and verify the same.
Apparatus Required:
Formula:
Procedure:
Result:
Circuit Diagram:
Verification:
Observation:
Standard
Reading of converted galvanometer to Difference
Voltmeter
Voltmeter Error
Sl Reading
No
P.D in volts
Deflection V2 V2 - V1
V1 = θ x L.C
1
2
3
4
5
5. P-N JUNCTION DIODE VI CHARACTERISTICS
Aim:
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.
Apparatus Required:
A p-n junction (semi conductor) diode kit, connecting wires, pieces of sand paper.
Formula:
∆𝑉
𝑅= (* from graph)
∆𝐼
Theory:
When the p section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of a battery and
n section is connected to negative terminal of a battery then junction is said to be
forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in
the beginning and the rapidly. At about 0.7 v of si diode (0.2 v for Ge), the current
increases suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward current
increases rapidly is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.
When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is very small reverse current
flow, which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltages
increases to sufficiently high value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large
value. This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs is called zener
breakdown voltage or inverse voltage
Procedure:
Result:
Junction resistance for forward – bias is _________ Ω
Junction resistance for reverse – bias is ___________ Ω
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat and clean
2. Keys should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used
Sources of Errors:
The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
Forward bias:
TABLE 1:
Reverse bias:
TABLE 2:
Aim:
To find the focal length of convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or 1/u
or 1/v
Apparatus Required:
Electrical Lamp, Screen, lens holder, a convex lens, metre scale, etc.
Formula:
1 1 1 𝑢𝑣
= − f=
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑢−𝑣
Procedure:
Result:
𝑢𝑣
Focal length from f= = _______ cm
𝑢−𝑣
PRECAUTIONS:
Sources of Errors:
Aim:
Apparatus Required:
Electrical Lamp, Screen, two lens holders, a convex lens, a concave lens, metre
scale, etc.
Formula:
𝑢𝑣
From lens formula, f=
𝑢−𝑣
f – focal length of concave lens L2
u – distance of I from optical centre of lens L2
v – distance of I’ from optical centre of lens L2
Procedure:
Result:
PRECAUTIONS:
Sources of Errors:
Diagram:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
8. TO FIND REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GLASS PRISM –
Aim:
Apparatus Required:
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre
scale, office pins. graph paper, a protactor.
Formula:
The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by,
Procedure:
• Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins
or tape.
• Draw a straight line XX’ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle
of the paper.
• Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3……. on the straight line XX’ at suitable distances of
about 5 cm.
• Draw normals N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3, ……. on points Q1,Q2,Q3……. as shown.
• Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3 …………. making angles of 35o, 40o,
………..60o respectively with the normals.
• Mark the corner of the Prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism for all
observation.
• Put it prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX’ and point Q in middle of
AB.
• Mark the boundary of the prism.
• Fix two or more office pin P1 and P2 vertically on the line R1Q1. The distance
between the pins should be 10 mm or more.
• Look at the images of point P1 and P2 through face AC.
• Close the left eye and bring open the right eye in line with two images.
• Fix two office point pins P3 and P4 vertically and 10 cm apart such that the
open right eye see pins P4 and P3 and images of P2 and P1 in one straight line.
• Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q2, Q3 for I = 40°………..60°.
• Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 to obtain emergent S1T1, S2T2,
S3T3 ………..
• Produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3 ………. inward in the boundary of the prism to meet
produced incident rays R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3 ……….. at points F1, F2,
F3 ………
• Measure angles K1F1S1, K2F2S2, K3F3S3 …………. These give angle of deviation
D1, D2, D3………..
• Write values of these angles on the paper.
• Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A.
• Record your observations.
Result:
i – D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of
deviation (D) first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm) and then starts increasing
for further increase in angle of incidence.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The pins should be fixed vertical
2. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays
Sources of Errors:
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
Diagram:
Angle of
Angle of incidence
Sl. No. minimum deviation
i°
d°
1 35
2 40
3 45
4 50
5 55
ACTIVITY
Activity 1: Measurement of resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (DC) and
Aim:
Apparatus Required:
Theory:
Procedure:
(i) Select the function switch and the range switch for proper D.C current
measurement.
(ii) Connect the multimeter to the battery. By convention, connect the red lead to
positive terminal and black lead to negative terminal of the battery.
(iii) Note down the reading from multimeter.
(iv) Now introduce a resistance in the circuit from the resistance box.
(v) Close the circuit by inserting the plug and then take measurement from
multimeter.
✓ The A.C/D.C voltage, D.C current and resistance were measured by multimeter.
✓ The value of A.C/D.C Voltage is same as that of A.C/D.C source.
✓ Value of resistance measured by multimeter is same as that by color coding.
OBSERVATIONS:
Activity 2 – Assembling the various components of the circuit
PROCEDURE:
2. To measure the current in the circuit, connect the ammeter in series with its
red terminal (+ve) on +ve scale of battery.
3. To measure the potential drop, connect the voltmeter in parallel tubing care
that its red terminal is close to the end of load where the current enters the
component.
Circuit Diagram:
Activity 3 – Marking the components that are not connected properly
AIM: To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery, a
resistor, a rheostat, one way key, ammeter and voltmeter.
THEORY:
(a) Functional electrical circuit: An electrical circuit is functional only when all
the components of the circuit are connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit
are connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit components/devices are in
working condition and key is closed.
(b) Open electrical circuit: An open circuit means that there is a break in some
part of circuit. The break may be deliberate such as key is in open or there is a fault
such as broken wire on burnt out components or loose connection.
PROCEDURE:
observation table.
4. Now make the correct connections using the electrical components in the
5. Now close the plug key and check up whether the corrected circuit is now
functional.
CONCLUSION:
Aim:
Apparatus required:
Procedure:
CONCLUSIONS:
DIAGRAMS:
OBSERVATIONS:
Unidirectional
1 More than 3 IC 4 DIODE
emit no light
Unidirectional
2 Three TRANSISTOR 5 LED
emit light
Conducts in both
CAPACITOR,
3 Two 6 directions. RESISTOR
DIODE, LED
(Steady)
Initial high but
7 CAPACITOR
decays to zero
AIM: To study the nature and size of the image formed by (a) convex lens (b) concave
mirror, on a screen by using a candle and a screen for different location of object.
PROCEDURE:
CONCLUSION: The nature and size of the image formed by the (a) concave mirror
(b) convex lens on a screen by using candle and a screen has been studied.
Images formed by concave Mirror
Between O & F On the same side of lens Enlarged Virtual & erect
Images formed by convex lens
AIM: To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses
from the given set of lenses.
THEORY: 1. Let f1 & f2 be the focal lengths of the two lenses and F be the focal length
of lens combination. Then 1/f = 1/f1 + 1/f2.
2. With a convex lens the real and inverted image of a distant object is formed
at a distance equal to the focal length of the convex lens.
PROCEDURE:
1. Take a convex lens (with f1= 20cm) and fix it into lens holder. Put the lens
holder on the left of screen and move the lens towards or away from screen till a
sharp, inverted image of distant object is obtained on the screen.
2. Measure the distance with the help of metre rod between the lens holder and
screen where the sharp, inverted image of the distant object is focused. This distance
gives the focal length of the convex lens.
3. Replace the first lens by second one (with f2 =20 cm) and repeat the above
steps to measure the focal length of the second lens. Now take a lens holder which
can hold two lenses touching each other.
4. Again repeat the steps again to find the focal length of the lens combination
(say F)