EXPERIMENT NO: 1 OHM’S LAW

(Note: This should be on ruled page.)

Aim: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph

for Potential Difference versus Current.

Apparatus: Ammeter, Voltmeter, Rheostat, One Way Key, An

Unknown Resistance Wire, Battery, and Connecting Wires.

Theory:
Ohm’s Law: ‘The current ‘I’ flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference ‘V’ across the two ends of
the conductor provided the physical conditions (Temperature,
Pressure etc.) of the conductor remain same.’

i.e. IαV

or VαI

V = IR
𝑉
= 𝑅 (Constant)
𝐼

The Constant of Proportionally ‘R’ is called the ‘Electrical

Resistance’. The value of resistance depends on the nature of the
conductor, its dimensions and the physical conditions.
 As the two quantities 𝑽 and 𝑰 are proportional to each other, so the
graph between the two is a straight line, as shown in figure 1. The
slope of this line is a measure of the resistance of the conductor.

Result:
1. From the table column, it is clear that the ratio of ‘𝑽/𝑰’ is constant
and also the graph between ‘𝑽’ and ‘𝑰’ is a straight line which again
shows that ‘𝑽/𝑰’ is a constant i.e. 𝑽 𝛼 𝑰.

2. From the Graph, Resistance per Unit Length of the given Conductor
is ____ Ω/m.

Precautions:
1. The key should be kept on only for a short interval of time while
taking a set of reading.
2. The connections should be tight and always use a low resistance
rheostat.
3. Clean the ends of the wires with sand paper before making the
connections.
Sources of error:
1. Connections may be loose.
2. The resistance coil may be defective.
3. Due to passage of current for a long time, the wire gets heated.
(Note: This content should be on blank side. Figure with pencil and
observation table’s Box only with pencil, Reading should be written
with help of blue pen)

(FIG: Circuit diagram of ohm’s law)

Observations:
(i) Range of given Voltmeter = _____ V

(ii) Range of given Ammeter = _____ A

(iii) Least Count of Voltmeter (L.C.) = _____ V

(iv) Least Count of Ammeter (L.C.) = _____ A

(v) Length of Conducting Wire, L = ______ cm

 Observation Table:

Sr. Reading Reading

No. of of 𝑽
Voltmeter Ammete =𝑹
𝑰
(Volts) r (A) (Ω)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculations:
From Graph,
𝐴𝐵
Slope, 𝐵𝐶 = _____
1
R =𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = _____ Ω

Resistance per unit length of the given wire

R/L = ______Ω/cm.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 2 Meter Bridge
(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal, with the help of blue pen
only)

Aim: To find the Resistance of the given Wire using Meter Bridge

Apparatus:
A Meter Bridge, A Galvanometer, One Way Key, A Resistance Box, A
Battery Jockey, Unknown Resistance, Wore About 1 Meter Long and
Connecting Wires.

Theory:

A meter bridge is the practical application of Wheatstone Bridge

arrangement as shown in the figure. The four resistances are connected to
each other as shown and if the bridge is in balanced state, i.e., there is no
deflection in the Galvanometer (G), then
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆
We can use this relation to find the unknown resistance of the given
material of wire. The unknown resistance ‘X’ can be found by Meter bridge
which uses the principle of Wheatstone bridge.
Result:
The resistance of the given wire = _______ Ω

Precautions:

1. Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter Bridge
properly with sand paper.
2. All connections should be neat and tight.
3. Balance point should lie 30 cm and 70 cm.
4. Do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact for a long time.
5. Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of Meter Bridge.
Sources of errors:

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The keys of the resistance box may not be clean and tight.
3. The wire may not be uniform thick throughout.
(This content should be on the blank side of your journal, Table and Diagram with
pencil and readings with pen)

Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Circuit connection

Observation Table:

Sr. Reading of Reading of Null X1= Reading of Null X2 = Mean X

Resistance Point When R. B. in 𝑹𝒍 Point When R. B.
No. (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
𝑹(𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍)
Box ‘R’ (Ω) Left Gap (cm) in Right Gap (cm) 𝒍
(Ω) (Ω)
l (100-l) l (100-l’) (Ω)

calculations:

Put the value of ‘R’, ‘𝒍’ in relation 𝑿 = 𝑹(𝟏𝟎𝟎/𝒍) 𝒍 to find values of unknown
resistance 𝑿𝟏, 𝑿𝟐 & 𝑿𝟑, etc. . Take the mean of all the results.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3 Half-Deflection

(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal, with the help of blue
pen only)

Aim: To determine the resistance of galvanometer by Half-deflection method

and find its figure of merit.

Apparatus: Galvanometer, Voltmeter, Battery Eliminator, Two Resistance Boxes,

Rheostat of High Resistance, One Way Key, Screw Gauge, Connecting Wires.

Theory:
The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method
is
RS
G= Ω
R−S

Where, S = Shunt resistance

R= Resistance connected in series with the galvanometer

Figure of merit k:
𝐸
K= (A/Div)
𝑅+𝐺𝜃

Where, E = e.m.f. of battery

R = Resistance offered by R.B.

G = Resistance of galvanometer

θ = Deflection in galvanometer
 The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer is
Ig = nk

Where, n= No. of division on Galvanometer

Result:

1. Resistance of galvanometer is found to be ________(Ω)

2. Figure of Merit of galvanometer is ________ (amp/div)

Precautions:

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight.

3. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be introduced or

else a small resistance can damage the galvanometer.

Sources of errors:

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of galvanometer may not be tight.

3. The galvanometer divisions may not be of same size.

(This content should be on the blank side of your journal, Table and Diagram with
pencil and readings with pen)

Circuit Diagram:

Fig 1: Circuit for finding Resistance of galvanometer

Fig 2: Circuit for finding figure of merit

Observation Table:

1. Resistance of galvanometer
RS
Sr. Resistance Deflection ‘θ’ Half Shunt S G=
R−S
in Deflection required
No. R
galvanometer θ/2 for half (Ω)
(Ω) (Div) deflection
(Div)
(Ω)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Mean

2. Figure of merit:
𝐸
Sr. E.M.F of the Resistance Deflection ‘θ’ K=
𝑅+𝐺𝜃
cell (V) in
No. R (Ω) (A/Div)
galvanometer
(Div)
(×10-5)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Mean
Calculations:

Resistance of galvanometer:
RS
G= (Ω)
R−S

Figure of merit:
𝐸
K= (A/Div)
𝑅+𝐺𝜃
 EXPERIMENT NO: 4 GALVANOMETERS INTO VOLTMETER
(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal, with the help of blue
pen only)

Aim: To convert the given Galvanometer (of known resistance and figure
of merit) into a Voltmeter of desired range (0 – 3 V) and to verify the
same.

Apparatus:

A Galvanometer, A Voltmeter of given range, A Battery Eliminator, A Resistance

Box, One Way Key, A Rheostat, and Connecting Wire.

Theory:

A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by a high resistance in

series with it. This can be calculated as

𝑉0
𝑅= −𝐺 (Where, V0 = Range of voltmeter)
𝐼𝑔

By connecting the resistance of value ‘R’, calculated by above relation as

shown in the diagram, the galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter
of range 𝑉0.

Result:

(i) Current Ig for full scale deflection = _____A

(ii) The value of High Resistance required to convert given
Galvanometer into Voltmeter of required (0 – 3 V) range = Ω
(iii) The % error is negligible and the conversion is verified.
Precautions:

(i) The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

(ii) The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.
(iii) The resistance box should be of high resistance value.
(iv) The shunt wire used should have length about 2 cm more than the r
required and this should be used under the terminals.
(v) The length of the wire should neither be too long nor too small, it should be
around 50 to 60 cm.

Sources of errors:

(i) The shunt wire may not be of uniform cross-section.

(ii) The plugs of galvanometer may not be tight.
(iii)The galvanometer divisions may not be of same size.
(This content should be on the blank side of your journal, Table and Diagram with
pencil and readings with pen)

Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Circuit connection

Observations:

(i) Least Count of Converted Galvanometer = _____ V

(ii) Least Count of the Standard Voltmeter= _____V
(iii) Resistance of Galvanometer ‘G’ = _____Ω
(iv) Figure of Merit ‘k’ =____A/div.
(v) No. of divisions on Galvanometer ‘n’ = _____
 Observation Table:

Converted Standard Error % 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓

Sr. Galvanometer Voltmeter = V2 – V1 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Reading Reading 𝑽𝟏
No
‘V1’ ‘V2’
%

Volt Volt
1.

2.

3.

calculations:

No. of divisions on Galvanometer ‘n’ =

𝑰𝒈 = 𝒏 𝒌 =_____A

Resistance required to convert galvanometer into voltmeter

𝑉0
𝑅= − 𝐺 = _____ Ω
𝐼𝑔
 EXPERIMENT NO: 5 Sonometer
(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal, with the help of blue
pen only)

Aim: To study frequency of the A.C. mains with the help of sonometer.

Apparatus: A sonometer (with soft iron wire), a set of eight tuning forks, ½ kg
hanger, seven ½ kg slotted weights, clamp, stand, rubber pad, paper rider, metre
scale.

Theory:

The frequency n of the fundamental mode of vibration of a stretched string,

fixed at two ends, is given by

1 𝑇
𝑣= √
2𝑙 𝑚

Here l is the length of the vibrating string, T is the tension in the wire and m is
its mass per unit length.

If an alternating current is passed in the coil of the electromagnet, the

magnetization produced in the core is proportional to instantaneous value of
the current. If the electromagnet is held close to the middle of the sonometer
wire, the wire will be attracted twice during each cycle towards the
electromagnet. The attractive force experienced by the wire will be proportional
to the magnetization produced in the core of the electromagnet. Since in each
cycle, the wire will be pulled twice and hence at resonance, it will vibrate with a
frequency which is twice the frequency of alternating current. Hence, if f is the
frequency of the alternating current, then

𝑣 1 𝑇
𝑓= = √
2 4𝑙 𝑚
Result:

1. The frequency of A.C. current = __________ Hz.

2. Standard value of frequency of A.C. = 50 Hz.
3. % Of error in result = __________ %.

Precautions:

1. Pulley should be as frictionless as possible.

2. Edges of the wedge should be sharp.
3. Tip of the electromagnetic pole should be close to the middle of the
sonometer wire.
4. After taking each of the observations, circuit should be switched off for a
few minutes.

Sources of error:

1. Friction of the pulley is the main source of error in the experiment. Due
to this, the value of tension acting on the wire is less than that actually
applied.
2. AC frequency may not be stable.
(This content should be on the blank side of your journal, Table and Diagram
with pencil and readings with pen)

Diagram:

Observations:

1. Length of the given wire =__________ cm.

2. Mass of this length (m) = 0.002 Kg.
3. Mass of the hanger = __________ Kg.

Observation Table:

Sr. Tension Resonant Length Wavelength

𝟏 𝑻
𝒗= √
No. T = Mg Length Length Mean 𝝀 = 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝒎

(In N) l1 l2 l

Increasing Decreasing (𝒊𝒏 𝒎) (𝒊𝒏 𝑯𝒛)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Mean
Calculation:

1. Find the value of v from the above readings, for each set of readings using
relation,

1 𝑇
𝑣= √
2𝑙 𝑚
Take the mean of all values of v.

2. Find the Frequency of the A.C. by using given formula,

𝑣
𝑓=
2

𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦−𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

3. % Error = ( ) × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
 EXPERIMENT NO: 6 Laws of combination (Series/Parallel Connection)

(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal, with the help of blue
pen only)

Aim: To verify the laws of combination of resistances (series and parallel) using
a metre bridge.

Apparatus: A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two different resistances

(carbon or wire-wound resistors), a resistance box, a jockey, a rheostat, a plug
key, a cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper

Theory:

When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series, the resistance of the
combination RS is given by

RS = R1 + R2

When connected in parallel, the resistance RP of the combination is given by,

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2

Result:

1. The value of unknown resistance are X1 = __________Ω & X2 =

__________ Ω.
2. The value of combination of resistances as obtained from experiment are
Xp (Parallel) = __________Ω & Xs (Series) = __________Ω
3. Equivalent resistances of series combination and parallel combination are
obtained from the formula of combination are X’ p (Parallel) =
__________Ω & X’s (Series) = __________Ω & the values are equal within
the limits of experimental error so the laws of combination stands
verified.

Precautions:

1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.

2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
 3. Plug keys of the resistance box should be made tight by rotating it in
clockwise direction.
4. Null points should be in the central region of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).

Sources of error:

1. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the metre bridge wire.
Otherwise, the wire may become non-uniform during the course of time.
2. The length measurement l and l′ may have error if the metre bridge wire
is not taut and along the scale in the metre bridge.
3. If large current is passed for a sufficiently long time, the wire AC may get
heated and its resistance may change considerably during the time of
experiment.
4. Galvanometer pointer is expected to be at zero when no current flows
through it. However, many a time it is observed that it is not so. In such
cases, pointer has to be adjusted to zero by gently moving the screw
below the scale with the help of a screw driver. Otherwise, null point must
be obtained by sliding the jockey on wire AC and observing the point,
where tapping the galvanometer does not produce any deflection in it.
5. Many a time, it is found that the resistance offered by resistance box is
not the same as is indicated on it. Therefore, the error in R will cause an
additional error in the result.
(This content should be on the blank side of your journal, Table and Diagram
with pencil and readings with pen)

Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Series connection for resistors

Fig: Parallel connection for resistors

Observations Table 1: Table for X1

Sr. Reading of Reading of Null Point X1= Mean X1

No resistance box 𝑹 ×(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
l (100-l) 𝒍
‘R’ (in Ω)
(cm) (cm) (in Ω) (in Ω)

1.
2.
3.

Observations Table 2: Table for X2

Sr. Reading of Reading of Null Point X2= Mean X2

No resistance box 𝑹 ×(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
l (100-l) 𝒍
‘R’ (in Ω)
(cm) (cm) (in Ω) (in Ω)

1.
2.
3.

Observations Table 3: Table for Series combination of X1 & X2

Sr. Reading of Reading of Null Point Xs= Mean Xs

No resistance box 𝑹 ×(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
l (100-l) 𝒍
‘R’ (in Ω)
(cm) (cm) (in Ω) (in Ω)

1.
2.
3.
Observations Table 4: Table for Parallel combination of X1 & X2

Sr. Reading of Reading of Null Point Xp= Mean Xp

No resistance box 𝑹 ×(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
l (100-l) 𝒍
‘R’ (in Ω)
(cm) (cm) (in Ω) (in Ω)

1.
2.
3.

Calculations:

1. X’s = X1 +X2

𝑋1 𝑋2
2. X’p =
𝑋1 + 𝑋2

Verification:

1. For series connection:

X’s = __________ ohm

Xs = __________ ohm (from observation table 3)

Since X’s ≅ Xs within the limits of experimental errors, therefore law of

series combination is verified.

2. For Parallel combination:

𝑋1 𝑋2
X’p = = __________ ohm
𝑋1 + 𝑋2

Xp = __________ ohm (from observation table 4)

Since X’p ≅ Xp within the limits of experimental errors, therefore law of

series combination is verified.
 Experiment No. 7 focal length of a convex lens
(Note: This content should be on the Ruled side of your journal with blue pen only)
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between ‘u’ and ‘v’ or ‘1/u’
and ‘1/v’.

Apparatus: An optical bench, three uprights, a convex lens, a lens holder, two optical needles.

Theory:
when a ray of light, parallel to the principal axis is incident on a lens, after refraction, it passes
through the focus or appears to pass through the focus. In case of a convex lens, the nature
and size of the image depends on his position of the object. To find the Focal Length of given
Convex Lens, we use Lens Formula,
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
where,
f = Focal Length of the Lens.
u = Distance of the Object Needle from the Optical Centre.
v = Distance of the Image Needle from the Optical Centre.
The signs of u and v are to be taken as positive or negative as per the New Cartesian Sign
Convention.

Result:
1) From tabular data, focal length, f = ___________ cm
2) From the u – v graph, f = ____________ cm
3) From 1/u - 1/v graph, f = ____________ cm

Precautions:
1) The uprights should be vertical (use spirit level to make the optical bench horizontal).
2) Do not place the object needle closer to the rough focal length of the lens. This will
produce a virtual image.
3) Tips of object needle and image needle should be at the same height and should
correspond with the centre of the lens.
4) Keep your eye at least 30 cm away from the image needle to view the image clearly.
Sources of Error:
1) The upright may not be vertical.
2) The parallax removed may not be perfect.
3) The scale chosen on the graph may not be accurate.
(Note: This content should be on the blank side of your journal. Diagram and observation
table with pencil and readings, calculations and all writing work with Blue Pen only)

Diagram:

Observations:

Rough Focal length of given convex lens = ________ cm

Table for ‘u’ and ‘v’:

Sr. Position of Distance between Distance between Focal Length

No. Lens and Object Lens and Image
Needle ‘u’ Needle ‘v’ 𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
Lens Object Image Observed 1/u Observed 1/v 𝑢−𝑣
At Needle needle
at at
O A C ‘OA’ ‘OB’
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm-1) (cm) (cm-1) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean

Calculation:
𝑓1 +𝑓2 +𝑓3
Mean focal length = 𝑓 = 3
Graphical Calculation:
1)
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐵
𝑓= 𝑐𝑚 OR 𝑓= 𝑐𝑚
2 2

2)
1 1
𝑓1 = 𝑐𝑚 OR 𝑓1 = 𝑐𝑚
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐵

𝑓1 + 𝑓2
𝑓=
2
 Experiment No: 8 Angle of Minimum Deviation
(This content should be on ruled side with blue pen only)
Aim: To determine the Angel of Minimum Deviation for a given Prism by Plotting a Graph
between the Angle of Incidence and the Angle of Deviation.

Apparatus: Prism, Drawing Board, Pins, White Paper, Meter Scale, Protractor.

Theory:
The Path of a Light through Prism: The ray bends towards the base of the prism through an
angle ‘δ’, called the angle of deviation. In the case of prism, value of angle ‘δ’ depends on ‘i’.
As ‘i’ increases, ‘δ’ first decreases to a minimum value ‘ δ 𝒎’ and then it increases.

A= r1 + r2 (i)
𝜹 = 𝒊+𝒆–𝑨 (ii)
sin 𝑖
μ = sin 𝑟 (iii)

At the angle of minimum deviation i.e. when δ = ‘δm’

r 1= r 2
i=e
A = 2r
r = A/2
by using above equations, we can write,
sin (𝐴+δ m)
μ= 𝐴
sin ( )
2

Result:
1. The graph 𝒊 - 𝜹 is shaped as shown in graph paper, indicating that as the angel of
incidence increases, angel of deviation first decreases and then increases.
2. The angle of minimum deviation δm = _______ (From graph)
Precautions:
1. The angle of incidence of the light should not be less than 30˚ and more than 60˚.
2. The pins fixed should be far away from each other (at least 8 to 10 cm away) and
should be vertical.
3. The prism should not be changed while performing the experiment.
4. The arrow marks should be marked to indicate the directions of incident, refracted
and emergent rays.
5. The 𝑖 = 𝛿 graph is a free hand graph and so it should be drawn carefully passing as
many points as possible.
6. Always same angel of prism should be on one side.

Sources of error:
1. The pin points may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
3. The pins may be fixed very close to each other.
(This content should be on the BLANK SIDE of your journal, drawing work (Table & Diagram)
with pencil, reading and calculations, etc with BLUE PEN only)

Diagram:

Fig.: Ray Diagram for Refraction through Prism at Different Angles

Observation: Angle of Prism: 60°

Table for Angle of Deviation:

Sr. Angle of Incident (i) Angle of Deviation (δ)

No.

1. 35°

2. 40°

3. 45°

4. 50°

5. 55°
 Experiment No. 9 Refractive index of liquid (water)
(Note: This content should be on the Ruled side of your journal with blue pen only)

Aim: To find the Refractive Index of Water using a Convex Lens and a Plane Mirror.

Apparatus: A Convex Lens, An Optical Needle, A Plane Mirror, A Clamp Stand, A

Spherometer, Thread, Meter Scale, and Water

Theory:

Let 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are the focal lengths of water lens and convex lens respectively, then focal
length of the combination (𝐹) is,
1 1 1
= +
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
The focal length of the Plano – concave lens is,
1 1 1
= +
𝑓1 𝐹 𝑓2
For R1 = R and R2 = ∞ for water lens, then from lens maker’s formula
1 1 1
= ( µ − 1) −
𝑓1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1
= ( µ − 1)
𝑅
Therefore, the refractive index of water is,

𝑅
(µ)= 1+
𝑓1
where, R = Radius of Curvature of the Concave surface of the Plano-concave lens
The radius of curvature of the lens is,
𝑙2 ℎ
𝑅= +
6ℎ 2

Result:
The Refractive Index of the Water, µ = 1.31
Precautions:
1) The screw of the spherometer should be moved in one direction only to avoid
backlash error.
2) The screw should be moved just to touch the surface of the convex lens or the glass-
slab.
3) The parallax should be removed properly

Sources of error:
1) The distance x1, x2 may not be measured correctly.
2) The value of h and l may not be correct.
3) Parallax may not be removed properly.
4) Backlash error may be acting on the spherometer.
(Note: This content should be on the blank side of your journal. Diagram and observation
table with pencil and readings, calculations and all writing work with Blue Pen only)

Figure:

Observations:
1) Pitch of the spherometer =0.1 cm
2) L.C. of spherometer = 0.01 cm
3) Distance between legs
a) AB = 4 cm
b) BC = 4 cm
c) CA = 4 cm
Mean distance between two legs,
𝐴𝐵+𝐵𝐶+𝐶𝐴
𝑙= = 4 cm
3

Rough focal length of convex lens: 22.5 cm

Radius of curvature: R = 2f = 15(2) = 45 cm

(you can calculate the radius of curvature by spherometer)
Table to measure focal length of convex lens

Distance of Needle Tip from Mean Focal length

Area Sr Tip of the Upper Upper 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑥=
Rigment No. Surface of the Convex Surface of 2 (cm)
Lens, 𝒙𝟏 the Plane
(cm) Mirror, 𝒙𝟐 (cm)
(cm)
Without 1. 22 23 22.5 F2= 22.5
Liquid 2. 22 23 22.5
With 1. 26 27 26.5 F= 26.5
Liquid 2. 26 27 26.5

Calculations:
Focal Length of Plano – Concave Lens,
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − = −0.007
𝑓1 𝐹 𝑓2 26.5 22.5

To find the Refractive Index of Water,

𝑅
(µ)= 1+
𝑓1
= 1+0.315
= 1.31
 Experiment No 10. Refractive Index of a Glass Slab
(Note: This content should be on the Ruled side of your journal with blue pen only)

Aim: To determine the Refractive Index of a Glass Slab using a Travelling Microscope.

Apparatus: A Glass Slab, White Sheet of Paper, Sharp Paper Pin, Travelling Microscope,
Lycopodium Powder, Drawing Pin.

Theory:
As a consequence of refraction, the depth of an object lying inside an optically denser medium
appears to be raised than the real depth.
The ratio of real depth to the apparent depth of a refracting medium is equal to the refractive
index (μ) of the medium.

That is,
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑅3 −𝑅1
μ = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 𝑅3 −𝑅2

where,
R1 = Reading of the travelling microscope at the object
R2 = Reading of the travelling microscope at the image through glass slab
R3 = Reading of the travelling microscope of the lycopodium Powder on the top of image
glass slab

Result:
The refractive index of the given glass slab is =

Precautions:
1) The microscope screws should be levelled properly.
2) Only very fine powder lycopodium should be used.
3) The microscope tube should be properly vertical.
4) As this is an optical arrangement, careful handling should be followed.
5) Microscope screw should be moved in one direction only while taking one set of
reading.
Sources of error:
1) The reading may not be noted accurately.
2) Cross-wire may not be focussed properly.
3) Screw C may have been rotated in reverse direction while taking reading in one
direction
 (Note: This content should be on the blank side of your journal. Diagram and observation
table with pencil and readings, calculations and all writing work with Blue Pen only)

Diagram:

Observations:
The least count (L.C.) for travelling microscope = 0.001 cm

Observation table:

Sr. Microscope Reading of Cross Mark Real Apparent μ=

No. Depth Depth 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
Without Glass Slab (R1) With Glass Slab (R2) Powder on slab ((R3)
t1=R3-R1 t2=R3-R2 𝑅 − 𝑅
3 2
M.S.R V.C Total M.S.R V.C Total M.S.R V.C Total
‘a’ ‘n1’ =a+v.c×n1 ‘b’ ‘n2’ =b+v.c×n2 ‘c’ ‘n3’’ =c+v.c×n3
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

1.
2.
3.
Mean

Calculation:
The value of refractive index of the given glass-slab,

𝑅3 − 𝑅1
μ=
𝑅3 − 𝑅2
 Experiment No. 11 Refractive index of liquid by concave mirror
(Note: This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen only)

Aim: To find the refractive index of a liquid (water) by using a concave mirror.
Apparatus: A concave spherical mirror, water, optical needle, clamp stand, meter
scale, etc.
Theory:
For refractive index,
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝜇=
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜇=
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Result: The refractive index of given liquid (water) 𝜇 = __________ .
Precautions:
1. Needle should be kept horizontal and principle axis should be vertical.
2. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.
3. Mirror used should be of large radius of curvature.
4. Distance should be measured from the centre of mirror and not from surface
of water.
Sources of error:
1. Mirror may not be cleaned.
2. Parallax may not remove properly.
(Note: This content should be on the blank side of your journal, diagram with
pencil and readings with blue pen)
Diagram:

Observations: Rough focal length of concave mirror, f = __________ cm.

Observation Table:
Sr. Actual radius of Apparent radius of 𝑹 Mean 𝝁 =
𝝁=
No. curvature (R) curvature (R’) 𝑹′
(In cm) (In cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mean
 Experiment No. 12 Focal length of convex mirror
(Note: This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen only)

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench with uprights for holding lens, mirror and two needles,
two needles (pins), a thin convex lens, a convex mirror, index needle (may be a knitting
needle or a pencil sharply pointed at both ends), a metre scale and a spirit level.

Theory:
Fig. illustrates the formation of image of an object AB by a convex mirror MM′ (having
a small aperture) in two different situations. The image formed by a convex mirror is
virtual and erect. Therefore, its focal length cannot be determined directly. However,
it can be determined by introducing a convex lens in between the object and the
convex mirror
An object AB is placed at point P′ in front of a thin convex lens such that its real,
inverted and magnified image A′B′ is formed at position C on the other side of the lens.
Now a convex mirror is introduced between the convex lens and point C and so
adjusted that the real and inverted image A′B′ coincides with the object AB at point P′.
This is possible if the light rays starting from the tip of the object, after passing through
the lens, fall normally on the reflecting surface of the convex mirror and retrace their
path. Any normal ray (perpendicular) to a spherical surface has to be along the radius
of that sphere so that point C must be the centre of curvature of the convex mirror.
Therefore, the distance P C is the radius of curvature R and half of it would be the focal
length of the convex mirror. That is,
𝑃𝐶 𝑅
𝑓= =
2 2
Result: Mean, Focal length of convex mirror, MI’’ = __________ (cm)
Precautions:
1. The uprights supporting the pins, lens and mirror must be rigid and mounted
vertically.
2. The apertures of the given convex lens and convex mirror should be small,
otherwise the image formed will be distorted.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance of about 25 cm or more from the image pin.
4. Optical bench should be horizontal. The tips of pins, centre of convex lens and
pole of the mirror should be at the same horizontal level.
Sources of error:
1. The tip of the inverted image of the object pin should just touch the tip of the
image pin and must not overlap. This should be ensured while removing the
parallax.
2. Personal eye defects may make removal of parallax tedious.
3. The convex mirror should preferably be front-coated. Otherwise, multiple
reflections may take place.
(Note: This content should be on the blank side of your journal, diagram with
pencil and readings with blue pen)
Diagram:

Observation Table:
S. Position of Position of Position Radius of Focal length
No. object needle mirror ‘M’ of image curvature 𝑹
𝒇=
‘O’ needle MI’ 𝟐
‘I’

(In cm) (In cm) (In cm) (In cm) (In cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mean
 Experiment No. 13 Zener Diode

(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen only)

Aim: To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown
voltage.

Apparatus:

A Zener diode (with small reverse breakdown voltage of about 6 volts), [i.e., Vz = 6 V], a ten volt
battery, a high resistance rheostat, two 0-10 V voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 20 Ω.
resistance, one way key, connecting wires.

Theory:

Zener Diode. It is a semiconductor diode, in which the n-type and the p-type sections are
heavily doped, i.e., they have more percentage of impurity atoms. This heavy doping results in a
low value of reverse breakdown voltage (BVR). This value can be controlled during manufacture.
The reverse breakdown voltage of a Zener diode, is called Zener voltage (V z). The reverse
current that results after the breakdown, is called Zener current (I z).

At breakdown, increase of VI increases II by large amount, so that V0 = VI– RI II becomes

constant. This constant value of V0 which is the reverse breakdown voltage, is called Zener
voltage.

Result:

The reverse breakdown voltage of given Zener diode is ________ (Volts).

Precautions:

1. All connection should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.

Sources of error:

1. Voltmeter and ammeter might have zero error.

(This content should be on blank side of your journal, drawing with pencil and readings with
pen)

Circuit diagram:

Observation Table:

Sr. No. Volt meter reading Ammeter reading

(Volts) (mA)
 Experiment No. 14 PN Junction diode (Forward Bias)
(This content should be on ruled side of your journal, with blue pen only)
Aim: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a P-N junction in forward bias
Apparatus: A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery,
a high resistance rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100
mA ammeter, one 0-100 μA ammeter, one way key, connecting wires
Theory:
Forward bias characteristics
The junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected
to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to
the negative terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, the current also
increases. For Si diode, at 0.7 V the current increases suddenly.
Reverse bias characteristics
The junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected
to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, there is a small
change in the current but the reverse current increases to a higher value with an
increase in the voltage.
Result: Junction resistance for forward bias = …… ohms
Precautions:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, forward bias voltage should not be applied.
4. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.

Sources of error:
Faulty junction diode might be supplied.
(This content should be on blank side of your journal, diagram with pencil and readings
with blue pen)
Diagram:

Observation table:
Sr. No Forward bias voltage Vf Forward bias current If
(V) (mA)

Graph:
 Activity 1

(This content should be on Ruled side with blue pen)

Aim:
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
Apparatus & material required:
Resistor, ammeter, (0-1.5A) voltmeter (0-5V ), battery, one way key, rheostat, sand paper,
connecting wires.

Procedure:
1. Connect the components as shown in Fig.
2. After closing the key K, check that the voltmeter and ammeter show deflections on
the right-hand side.
3. Check the continuity of the assembled circuit using a multimeter.

Result:
The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

Precautions:
1. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of
ammeter and positive terminal of the voltmeter.
2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter should
be connected in parallel with the resistor.
3. Sand paper should be used to clean the ends of connecting wires and leads of the
component terminals. Grease/oil or oxide layer on their surfaces is insulating in nature
and needs to be removed. However, do not clean the plugs and keys with sand paper.
Excessive use of sand paper in such a case will make the plug unfit to be used with the
key.
(This figure should be on the blank side)

(Fig: Assembling of given components)

 Activity 2

(This content should be on Ruled side with blue pen)

Aim:
To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key,
ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and
correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus:
A given open circuit comprising at-least a cell or a battery, plug key, resistor, rheostat,
ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and sand paper.

Principle:
An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of the circuit are connected in
proper order, assuming that all circuit components/devices are in working condition and key
is closed.
An open circuit means a break in some part of a circuit which could be deliberate such as a
key in open position or a fault such as broken wire or burnt-out component(s) or loose
connection. Some of such circuits are given in Figs. (a), (b), (c) and (d).

Procedure:
1. Draw the circuit diagrams in your notebook as given by your teacher [Fig. (a), (b), (c)
and (d)].
2. Consider one circuit and mark in Table A 2.1, the various components which have not
been connected in proper order.
3. Draw the correct circuit diagram.
4. Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit diagram.
5. Close the key in the circuit to verify if the corrected circuit is functional.

Note: Rheostat can be used both as a variable resistance and potential divider.

Rheostat as a variable resistance

1. Draw a diagram as given in Fig. A 2.2 (a) showing use of a rheostat as a variable
resistor.
2. Connect the terminals of rheostat as drawn below using one end terminal and the
other variable terminal.
Result:
The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram is functional.

Precautions:
1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper before making
connections.
2. 2. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of
the voltmeter and positive terminal of the ammeter.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter should
be connected in parallel with it.
(This content on blank side of your journal. All drawings with pencil, Written work with pen)

(b)

Observations:

Sr. No Circuit Component Correct Connection Incorrect

connection.
1. Battery Yes
2. Resistor Yes
3. Rheostat Yes
4. Key Yes
5. Ammeter Yes
6. Voltmeter Yes
 Activity 3

(This content should be on Ruled side with blue pen)

Aim:
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three(on/off) switches, a fuse and a
power source.

Apparatus:
Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three (on/off) switches, socket, a fuse of 1.0 A, plug, flexible
connecting wire, main switch.

Principle:
If P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, ... be the power consumed by different domestic electrical appliances in a
circuit then the total power consumption, P at any instant is given by,
P = P1+ P2+ P3+ P4+ P5+…..
If electric potential is V, then current I drawn from the mains is given by,
I = P/V
where P is in watt, V in volt and I in ampere. In order to protect the appliances from damage,
when accidentally a high current is drawn (e.g. when the terminals of the appliance get
accidentally connected), a fuse of rating little higher (10 to 20 per cent higher than the current
normally drawn) is connected in series with the set of appliances.

Procedure:
1. Take the bulbs B1, B2, B3 and connect them in series with switches S1 S2 and S3
respectively. Connect B1, B2, B3 Along with S1, S2, S3 in parallel with each other as shown
in Fig.
2. Connect fuse F in series with the set up as shown in Fig. Connect a plug and the socket
at the end of two leads. Connect a wire from the earth pin of the plug.
3. Insert the plug-in socket provided in the main electric board.
4. Press the switches S1, S2, S3 one by one and observe the bulb that is switched on and
off independently of the other bulb.
5. Press all the switches simultaneously and observe what happens. Record your
observations.
Result:
Household circuit assembly is complete and installed with safety.

Precautions:
1. Care should be taken while working with mains.
2. Carefully determine the rating of the fuse by calculating the maximum current drawn
by the circuit.
(This content on blank side of your journal, with pencil)

(Fig: Diagram for house hold circuit)

 Activity 4
(This content should be on ruled side of your journal with blue pen only)
Aim: To measure resistance, voltage (dc/ac), current (dc) and check continuity
of a given circuit using a multimeter.
Apparatus: A multimeter with its test leads, a resistance box, a key, a cell, a
stepdown transformer of 6 V output voltage, a rheostat, connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper
Theory:
A multimeter is an instrument that can work as a current meter (ammeter) or a
voltage meter (voltmeter) or a resistance meter (ohmmeter). Sometimes it is
also referred to as AVO (ampere, volt and ohm) meter. It may measure
resistance and potential difference in both ac and dc circuits and current in dc
circuit over several ranges. The function and the range can be selected by means
of either a rotary selector knob or a combination of switches and sockets.
Multimeters are of two kinds : analog and digital. Analog multimeter : Analog
multimeter Fig. is a dc galvanometer which can be converted into an ammeter
or a voltmeter of different ranges to measure current or voltage or resistance.
For ac measurement, the root mean square (rms) values of current and voltage
are measured. When using a multimeter to measure current, it must be
connected in series with the circuit. For measuring the voltage difference
between two points in a circuit, the two leads of the multimeter are connected
across them. For example, to measure the voltage across a resistor, the
multimeter is connected in parallel with the resistor. When the multimeter is in
the resistance measuring mode, a cell within the multimeter automatically gets
connected, which makes the current flow through the externally connected
resistor whose resistance is being measured. The multimeter only senses this
current with its dial calibrated in terms of the resistance. It is essentially
nonlinear in calibration. Digital multimeter : Fig. shows a digital multimeter. To
measure voltage and current it uses a digital circuit called ADC (analog to digital
converter). Since the ADC can accept a very small input voltage, a sampling of
the input voltage/ current is necessary. Voltage is measured directly, whereas
current is converted into proportional voltage using standard resistors built in
the instrument. For resistance measurement, constant current sources are used.
It creates voltage proportional to resistance values which is then digitised by the
ADC. The resolution of such meters depends on the range as well as the number
of digits in the display panel.
Result:
The dc/ac voltage, dc current and resistance have been measured using a
multimeter.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Appropriate selection of function switch and range switch for a given
measurement of voltage or current and resistance should be made.
2. The polarity probe leads should be connected to the proper polarities in
measuring dc voltage and current.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The scale used in reading of voltage/ current may be improper.
2. Zero adjustment in measuring R with analog multimeter may not be
accurate.
(This content should be on ruled side of your journal)
Diagram:

Observations:
Sr. No Observation on Observation on Difference
resistance box multimeter
1.
2.
3.
4.
 Activity 5
Aim: To observe polarisation of light using two polaroids.
Apparatus: Two polaroid sheets, source of light/sunlight, card board, a pair of
scissors, white paper, glue.
Theory:
Natural light is associated with electric vectors normal to the direction of
propagation and lying in all possible planes passing through the light beam.
However, all these vectors can be resolved along two mutually perpendicular
directions. Every polaroid has an axis of transmission such that when the
polaroid is placed normal to the path of an unpolarised light beam, the
component of electric vector associated with it and parallel to the axis of
transmission is allowed to pass through and the transmitted light is plane
polarised. This can be checked by rotating another polaroid placed next to the
first polaroid along the beam of light, (Fig. A11.1) a position comes for which the
transmitted intensity vanishes. This position corresponds to the situation when
the axis of transmission of the two polaroids are perpendicular to each other.
When these axes are parallel to each other, the transmitted intensity attains a
maximum value. Hence, the fractional intensity ranges between 0 and 1 as the
two polaroids in the path of light beam are rotated with respect to each other.

Result:
The angle through which the intensity changes from maximum to minimum
=________°
PRECAUTION
Care should be taken to handle the polaroids carefully so as not to leave finger
prints.
(This content should be on blank side of your journal)
Diagram:

Observations:
1. Difference between scale readings for maximum intensity, a = ________°.
2. Difference between scale readings for minimum intensity, b = ________ °
 Activity 6
(This content should be on ruled side of your journal)
Aim: To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.
Apparatus: Two razor blades, one adhesive tape/cello-tape, source of light
(electric bulb/ laser pencil), a piece of black paper, two glass plats.
Theory:
When a beam of light passes through a fine opening (aperture) or around a sharp
obstacle, it bends around corners of the obstacle/aperture. The light beam
spreads and penetrates into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle. This
phenomenon of bending of light around fine openings/obstacles is called
diffraction and is one of the evidences in favour of wave nature of light. It arises
because of the interference of light waves from different points of the same
wave front. Two razor blades with their sharp edges held parallel, quite close to
each other (separation being of the order of wavelength of light λ) form a fine
single slit (Fig. A 12.1). The diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a
central bright band, surrounded on both sides by coloured bands (with electric
bulb) and alternate dark and bright bands (with laser pencil) of decreasing
intensity and fringe width.
Result:
Light waves incident on very fine apertures (openings) bend arround corners and
exhibit phenomenon of diffraction.
(This content should be on blank side of your journal)

Diagram: