1.

Ohm’s Law

Aim: To determine the resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.

Apparatus required: The given two resistance wire, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat, a battery, one-way key,
meter scale and connecting wires.

Formula used: According to Ohm’s Law

𝑉 ∝𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (𝑉)
𝑉
𝑅= (Ω)
𝐼
Where,

V = Potential difference across the given wire. (V)

I = Current flowing through the given wire. (A)

R = Resistance of the given wire (Ω)

The specific resistance or resistivity ρ of the material of the given wire is given as

𝜋𝑑2
𝜌=( ) 𝑅 (Ω𝑚)
4𝐿
Where,

d = Diameter of the wire (m)

L = Length of the wire (m)

R = Resistance of the given wire (Ω)

Circuit Diagram:

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM Page 2

Model graph:

Observation:

Range of ammeter =
Range of voltmeter =
Least count of ammeter =
Least count of voltmeter =
Length of the wire =

Table:

Wire 1:

Sl. No. Ammeter Reading (I) Voltmeter Reading (V) 𝑽

𝑹= (𝜴)
(volt ) 𝑰
(ampere)

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ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
Wire 2:

Sl. No. Ammeter Reading (I) Voltmeter Reading (V) 𝑽

𝑹= (𝜴)
(volt ) 𝑰
(ampere)

Calculations:

Procedure:

Result:

The resistivity of wire 1 is determined to be:

The resistivity of wire 2 is determined to be:

Precautions:

1. Connection should be tight.

2. The voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
3. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and ammeter should be connected in series.

Source of Error:

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ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
 2. METER BRIDGE - LAW OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES IN SERIES

Aim: To verify the law of series combination of resistances using meter bridge.

Apparatus required: Meter bridge, two resistance coils, a resistance box, a rheostat, galvanometer, a jockey, one-
way key, a cell or battery eliminator and thick connecting wires.

Formula used:

(i) The Unknown resistance ‘r’ of the wire is then given by

𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
𝒓=( )𝑹 (Ω)
𝒍

Where,

r = Unknown resistance of the given coil (Ω)

l = Balancing length (cm)

R = Resistance from the resistance box (Ω)

(ii) When two resistances are connected in series, their combined resistance is given as

𝑟𝑠 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 (Ω)

Where,

𝑟𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω)

𝑟1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 (Ω)

𝑟2 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 (Ω)

Diagram:

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ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
Table:

Resistance
Balancing
from Length 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍 Mean
Resistance Sl. Length 𝒓= ( ) 𝑹(𝜴)
resistance DC = (100 - l) 𝒍 Resistance
Coil No. AD = l
box, R (cm) (Ω)
(cm)
(Ω)
1
2
r1
3

r2 2

1
r1 and r2 in
series 2

Calculation:

Result: Within experimental errors 𝑟𝑠 ≈ 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 . Therefore, the law of combination of resistances in series stands
verified.

Precautions:

1. Connection should be tight.

2. The jockey should be made to slide gently.
3. The key in the battery circuit should remain inserted only when observations are to be taken.

Source of Error:

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
Page 6
 3. GALVANOMETER - FIGURE OF MERIT

Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method andto find its figure of merit.
Apparatus required: A galvanometer, 2 V battery, a resistance box of range (0 – 10,000Ω), a resistance box of
range (0 – 500 Ω), two one-way keys, and connecting wires.

Formula used:

(i) The resistance of the galvanometer is given as

𝑅𝑆
𝐺= (Ω)
𝑅−𝑆

Where,

G = Resistance of the Galvanometer (Ω)

R = Resistance from the resistance box (Ω)

S = Shunt resistance (Ω)

(ii) The Figure of merit (k) of the galvanometer is given by

𝐸 1
𝑘=( ) (𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1 )
𝑅+𝐺 𝜃
Where,

k= Figure of merit of the galvanometer(𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1 )

E = Emf of the battery (V)

R = Resistance form the resistance box (Ω)

G = Resistance of the Galvanometer (Ω)

θ = Deflection in the Galvanometer (div)

(iii) The current that produces full scale deflection is given as

𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝑘 (𝐴)

Where,

𝐼𝑔 = Current that produces full scale deflection (A)

N = Number of division on either side of the galvanometer (div)

k= Figure of merit of the galvanometer(𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1 )

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ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
Diagram:

Table for finding resistance G of galvanometer

Half Deflection Galvanometer

Resistance Deflection in the Shunt Resistance
𝜽 Resistance
Sl. No R galvanometer, θ S
𝟐 𝑹𝑺
(Ω) (div) (Ω) 𝑮= (Ω)
( div ) 𝑹−𝑺

Mean =

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ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
Table for finding the figure of merit

The Emf of the battery =

Resistance of the galvanometer =

Resistance Deflection in the Figure of Merit

Sl. No R galvanometer, θ 𝑬 𝟏
𝒌= . (𝑨𝒅𝒊𝒗−𝟏 )
(div) (𝑹 + 𝑮) 𝜽
(Ω)

Mean =

To find current required for producing full scale of deflection (I g)

Maximum number of division on the either side in the galvanometer, N =

Figure of merit of galvanometer, k =
Current that produces full scale deflection, Ig = Nk =

Procedure:

Result:

(i) The resistance G of the galvanometer by half deflection method is found to be =

(ii) The Figure of merit of galvanometer is found to be =
(iii) The Current that produces full scale deflection is determined to be =

Precautions:

1. Connection should be tight.

2. To avoid damage to the galvanometer, a high resistance (5000 Ω) should be first taken out of the resistance
box R and then key K1 should be closed.
3. The plugs of the resistance box should be clean.
Source of Error:

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM Page 9

 CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLT METER

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ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
 . Focal length of convex lens

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v

Requirements: Convex lens, lens holder, metre scale, white screen, lamp with object.

Theory:When a ray of light, parallel to principal axis is incident on a convex lens, after
refraction, it passes through focus. Another ray which passes through optical centre goes
straight and these refracted rays meet and produce real inverted images. The nature and size
of image depends on position of object.

Focal length formula is 1  1  1 where u is object distance in cm, v is image distance

f v u
in cm and focal length of lens in cm.

Observation:

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm

Object Image Focal length, f

𝑢𝑣
S.No Lens position distance, u distance, v f=
(𝑢−𝑣)
(cm) (cm)
(cm)
1. 2f-4
2. 2f-2
3. 2f
4. 2f+2
5. 2f+4
Mean (f) = cm.

Procedure:

a) Obtain rough focal length of given convex lens by focusing the image of a distant
object on the wall.
b) Mount the given lens on the lens holder and place at 2f distance from the object.
c) Place white screen behind the lens.
d) Move the screen forward and backward so that the image of the object is obtained.
e) Note the position of the object, image and the lens.

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
 f) The distance between the object and the lens is u and the distance between the image
and the lens is v.
g) Repeat the above steps with lens at (2f-4),(2f-2), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from the
object.

Result:

The focal length (f) of given convex lens is,

1) By calculation, f=_____
2) By u-v graph, f=_____

Precautions:

a) Do not place the object closer than the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce
a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and the image should be at same height and should correspond with
centre of curvature.
c) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from image to view the image clearly.

Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.

. Refractive index of glass slab

Aim: To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Requirements: A glass slab, White sheet of paper with an ink dot, travelling mircroscope.

Theory:When a ray of light goes from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer
medium, it bends away from the normal. Consider an object ‘O’ lying at point O. The image
of object is formed at ‘I’ by refraction. A ray of light starting from O along OA is incident
normally and goes undeviated. Another ray of light incident along OB is refracted along BL.
These two rays appear to meet at I, which is the virtual image of ‘O’. Thus as a consequence
of refraction, the depth of an object appears less than the real depth. AO = real depth, AI =
apparent depth.

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
 sin i 1
 for light travelling from denser to rarer medium.
sin r n

AB AB
sin i  , sin r 
OB IB

AB
OB  1  IB  1 (or ) OB  n
AB n OB n IB
IB

If i and r are small, OB = AO and IB = AI

AO realdepth
n= =
AI apparentdepth

Observation:

To determine the refractive index of the glass slab:

Least count of the travelling microscope = 0.001 cm

Reading of microscope Real Apparent Refractive

Without With With Ink dot on Glass Depth depth Index,

slab(c) (𝒄−𝒂)
Glass slab(a) Glass slab(b) (c-a) (c-b) n = (𝒄−𝒃)

S.No MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR (cm) (cm)

(no unit)
(cm) (div) (cm) (cm) (div) (cm) (cm) (div) (cm)

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
Procedure:

Using travelling microscope,

a) Place a small piece of paper with the mark of ink on it the horizontal platform of the
microscope.
b) Focus the microscope on the ink mark by moving the microscope tube up and down.
c) Note the reading of the microscope and make sure the tube is vertical.
d) Put the slab on the ink mark. It will appear to be raised. Moving the microscope tube
up or down should not be done. Move the microscope slowly upward so that the ink
mark is again in a sharp focus. Note the reading upon microscope.
e) Now make an ink dot on the glass slab and focus the microscope on the dot marked.
Note the microscope reading again.

Result:

The refractive index of the given glass slab is _______

Precautions:

a) Find the least count of the travelling microscope accurately.

b) The ink dot on slab should be very fine.
c) Microscope tube should be vertical.

Sources of error:

1. The ink dot may not be sharply focused.

2. There may be calibration error.
3. Microscope tube may not be exactly vertical
4. Levelling of microscope should not be done properly.
5. Personal error..

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
 3. PRISM – i-d CURVE

Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
Apparatus Required: A prism, a drawing board, a sheet of white paper, drawing pins, protractor, a
ruler and a graph paper.
Formula used:
According to prism equation

i+e=A+δ
δ=i+e-A (degree)
Where,
A = Angle of the prism (degree)
i = Angle of incidence (degree)
e = Angle of emergence (degree)
δ = Angle of deviation (degree)
Diagram:

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
 Model graph:

Observation:
Angle of the prism =
Table: Sl. No Angle of incidence Angle of deviation
i (in degree) δ (in degree)
1 35
2 40
3 45
4 50
5 55
6 60

Procedure:

Result:
The angle of minimum deviation from the graph is ……………….
Precautions:
1. All pins should be fixed vertically.
2. The distance between pins should be at least 7 to 8 cm.

The tips of both the pins on the emergent ray and images of tips of both the pins on the incident ray
should lie in the same straight line.
 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
EX. NO: 4
DATE:
AIM: To study the forward and reverse characteristics of a diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: semiconductor diode, ammeter (milli) and voltmeter.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

8
MODEL GRAPH

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
TABULAR COLUMN: REVERSE BIAS

FORWARD BIAS
Voltmeter Ammeter Voltmeter Ammeter
Reading(V) Reading Reading(V) Reading
I(mA) I(mA)

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections for forward bias.
2. Increase the forward bias, note down the ammeter and voltmeter reading.
3. Repeat the experiment for reverse bias of the diode by changing the connection.
4. Plot the forward and reverse bias characteristic curve.
Result: The I-V characteristic curves are drawn for forward bias of a diode

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections must be tight
2. The voltmeter and ammeter readings must be recorded accurately.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The given diode may be faulty
2. The connections may be loose.

ADITYA VIDYASHRAM
 ACTIVITY –1
DATE:
AIM: To identify a diode, a LED, a resistor and a capacitor from mixed collection
of such items.
APPARATUS: A mixed collection of electronic components such as diodes, light
emitting diodes (LED s), resistors, capacitors and a multimeter.

PRINCIPLE:
Diode: A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward biased. It does
not emit light while conducting.
Light emitting diode (LED): An LED is also a two-terminal device. It conducts
when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light
while conducting.
Resistor: A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts when operated with ac as
well as dc voltage.

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Capacitor: A capacitor is a two-terminal device. It does not conduct with dc
voltage.

PROCEDURE:
1. Check the physical appearance of the component.
2. If the component has two terminals, it could be a resistor, a capacitor, a
diode or LED.
3. Look for colour bands, if it has a typical set of three colour bands followed
by a silver or gold band, the component is a resistor.
4. Connect the multimeter terminals to the component terminals and watch for
multimeter deflection keeping the multimeter knob in resistance mode.
5. If the multimeter shows a deflection, the component could be a resistor, a
diode or LED.
6. If the deflection is accompanied with emission of light, the component is an
LED.
7. If no light is emitted then interchange the multimeter terminals connected to
the component.
8. If the component still gives deflection in a multimeter, then the component is
a resistor.

12
 9. If the pointer of the multimeter shows deflection when its terminals are
connected across the component in one direction and does not show
deflection when the terminal, of the multimeter in opposite direction and
also there is no emission of light, then the component is a diode.
10. If the multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting its terminals
either wat to component, then it is a capacitor.

RESULT: A diode, an LED. a resistor and a capacitor are identified from a mixed
collection.

13
 ACTIVITY –2
DATE:
AIM: To observe the lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
glass slab.
APPARATUS: A sheet of white paper, glass slab, drawing board, pins, metre scale
and pencil.
PROCEDURE:
i) Fix the sheet of white paper on the drawing board.
ii) Draw the boundary of a glass slab ABCD.
iii) Draw the normal in CD and incident ray making an angle of 30° with the
normal (PQ)
iv) Fix two pins on PQ and view the legs of the pins on the opposite side.
v) Fix two more pins so that all lie in the same straight line,
vi) Join the points namely RS to the side AB.
vii) Draw the normal at the point of incidence of the emergent ray.
viii) Produce the incident ray and measure the perpendicular distance between
incident ray produced and emergent ray,
ix) Repeat the experiment for various thickness of glass slat.
x) Tabulate the observations.

CONCLUSION:
i) The incident ray produced is parallel to the emergent ray.
ii) The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the
thickness of the slab.

14
RAY DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
T.No. t x 10-2 m d x 10-2 m

15
 ACTIVITY –3
DATE:
AIM: To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two
lenses from a given set of lenses.
APPARATUS: convex lenses of known focal length, scale and screen.
PROCEDURE:
i) Focus the lens 1 and lens II towards the distance object separately.
ii) Adjust the screen to get the clear image on the screen.
iii) Measure the distance between lens I and screen gives f1 and similarly for
lens II (f2).
iv) Tie both the lenses and find the focal length of combination by the same
method (f).
CONCLUSION:
f1 =
f2 =
1 1 1
By calculation = +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

f=
From experiment f =

RAY DIAGRAM

16
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. f 1 x 10-2 m f 2 x 10-2 m f x 10-2m f (from

experiment)
x 10-2m

----------------

17