ADITYA VIDYASHRAM RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL

BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
MANUAL CUM OBSERVATION
Department of Biology
Diagram

Tabulation

Name of the No. of pollen No. of pollen Percentage of

flower grains observed grains germinated germination
Exp. No.: 1

Date:

STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION ON A SLIDE

AIM:

To study the pollen germination on slide.

REQUIREMENTS:

Fresh seasonal flowers, slide, coverslip, beakers, microscope, sucrose, boric acid, magnesium
sulphate, potassium nitrate.

PROCEDURE:

i. Prepare a nutrient solution by dissolving 10g of sucrose, 10g of boric acid, 30mg of
magnesium sulphate and 20 mg of nitrate in 100 ml of water.
ii. Take a few drops of this solution on a clean slide and dust a few pollen grains from the
stamen of a mature flower on it.
iii. Observe the slide in the microscope after 5 minutes and then observe it regularly for about
half an hour.

OBSERVATION:

i. In the nutrient medium the pollen grain germinates.

ii. The tube cell enlarges and comes out of pollen grain through one of the germ pores to form a
pollen tube.
iii. The tube nucleus descents to this tip of the pollen tube. The generative cell also passes into it.
iv. The generative cell soon divides into two male gametes. Each male gamete is lenticular to
spherical in outline.

PRECAUTIONS:

i. Flowers should be freshly plucked.

ii. Use clean slides to observe the pollen grains.

INFERENCE: Number of pollen grain germinated out of 30 pollen grains observed is 3. So the percentage
of germination is 10%.
T.S. OF TESTIS:

L.S. OF OVARY:
Exp. No.: 2

Date:

STUDY OF GAMETE DEVELOPMENT IN TESTIS AND OVARY OF MICE

T.S. OF TESTIS:

i) The testis of mouse is covered by a thick fibrous tissue called Tunica albuginea.
ii) The testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tissue.
iii) Various types of germinal cells are present from outside towards lumen in the following
sequence spermatogonia spermatocytes spermatid
Spermatozoa sperms.
iv) Between the germinal cells, pyramid shaped cells called sertoli cells are present.
v) A large number of spermatozoa with their heads embedded in sertoli cells are
present in the lumen of seminiferous tubules.
vi) The interstitial tissue also contains leydig’s cells which produce the male sex
hormone testosterone.

L.S. OF OVARY:

● A mouse ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium followed by a thick layer of
fibrous tissue tunica albuginea
● The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.
● The medulla consists of many oval/round bodies called ovarian or graafian follicles.
● The medulla contains blood vessels, nerve fibres and some smooth muscles.
● Each follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many granulosa cells.
● The cortex contains young and mature follicles.
● Cortex also contain a large mass of yellow cells called corpus luteum found in a empty graafian
follicle after the release of its ovum.
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF BLASTULA
Exp. No.: 3

Date:

_____________________________________________________________
TO STUDY THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF BLASTULA
____________________________________________________________

T.S. Blastula

1. It is a spherical mass of about 64 cells.

2. It is composed of an outer envelope of cells ( trophoblast or trophoectoderm)
and inner cell mass (embryoblast) .
3. Within the envelope there is a fluid filled cavity called blastocoel.
4. The side of the blastocyst to which the inner cell mass is attached is called the
embryonic or animal pole. While the opposite side is the abembryonic pole.
5. The inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo.
MAIZE FLOWERS ( anemophilous/wind pollinated flowers)

SALVIA FLOWERS (Entomophilous/insect pollinated flowers)

Exp. No.: 4

Date:

STUDY OF FLOWERS ADAPTED TO POLLINATION BY DIFFERENT

AGENCIES

MAIZE FLOWERS ( anemophilous/wind pollinated flowers)

1. The maize plant is monoecious and bears unisexual flowers. The male flowers are
born in terminal inflorescence while the female flowers are born in axillary
inflorescence.
2. Flowers are small and inconspicuous.
3. The flowers are colorless, odorless and nectar less.
4. Flowers are produced above the foliage or placed or placed in hanging position.
5. Both the stigma and anthers are exerted outside the flower.
6. Anthers are versatile and pollen grains are light, small and dusty.
7. The pollen grains are produced in very large number.

SALVIA FLOWERS (Entomophilous/insect pollinated flowers)

1. The flowers are showy or brightly colored for attracting pollination insects.

2. The flowers are born in verticellaster inflorescence to become conspicuous.

3. Flowers secrete nectar to feed visiting insects. Nectar glands are placed in such a
position that an insect must touch anthers and stigmas.

4. The flowers have landing platform for the insects.

5. The flowers are protandrous with bilipped corolla and have turn pipe or lever
mechanism.
BEGONIA (Ornithophilous/Bird pollinated flowers)
6. Each stamen has long connective tissue which bears a fertile anther lobe at the lower end.
The two sterile anther plates block the path of insects.

7. As the insect moves inward a young flower in search of nectar, its head pushes the
anther plates and forces the fertile anther lobes to strike against its back.

8. In older flowers, the style brings the stigma in such a position that it brushes against the

back of insects and collect pollen grains brought by the insect from a young flower.

BEGONIA (Ornithophilous/Bird pollinated flowers)

1. The flowers are usually bright colored, red, yellow , orange or blue

2 .The floral parts are leathery

3. Sometimes the corolla are leathery.

4.The plants secrete leathery, watery nectar or have edible parts.

5. The nectar is secreted in such abundant a way that drops can be brought down by shaking
branches

6. The flowers are generally odorless or without fragrance.

Exp. No.: 6

Date:

ISOLATION OF DNA FROM PLANT MATERIAL

AIM:

To extract DNA from the given sample.

REQUIREMENTS:

Fruit pulp , mortar and pestle, beakers, liquid detergent, common salt, distilled water, test
tubes, Measuring cylinder, Thermometer, water bath, weighing balance, 75% - 95 % ethanol,
ice- cubes etc.

PROCEDURE:

A) PREPARATION OF EXTRACT SOLUTION:

i) Weigh 3 gms of salt and dissolve in some of distilled water.

ii) Add 10 ml of liquid detergent and make up the volume to 100 ml with distilled water.
This is stock solution.

B) FRUIT JUICE EXTRACTION:

i) Weigh 100 ml fruit pulp mesh it homogenously to extract juice.

ii) Filter the pulp through a blotting / Filter paper using a funnel and collect the filtrate.

C) DNA ISOLATION:

i) Take 5ml of stock solution and add 10 ml of fruit juice to it gently without creating a foam
or air bubbles.

ii) Now add 5-10 ml of chilled alcohol (75%-95%).

iii) Observe and spool for DNA.

OBSERVATION:

i) After about 10 minutes on addition of alcohol mass of white stringy thread the stuff is
observed at the alcohol and fruit juice interface.

ii) Leave the test tube undisturbed for few minutes. The DNA moves to the surface.

iii) Bring a drop stick or spool, the DNA can be spooled out of the test tube.

PRINCIPLE:

i) The liquid detergent lyses the membranes of cell allowing the DNA to be released.

ii) Filtering the fruit pulp get rid of the debris.

PRECAUTIONS:

I) Take care that during the preparation of stock solution foaming should be avoided.

ii) Mash the pulp well in order to break the cell Wall
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS – COLOUR BLINDNESS
Exp. No.:

Date:

PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

COLOUR BLINDNESS

COMMENT:

● The allele for colour blindness is present on X chromosome (Xc), while the
chromosome Y does not bear corresponding allele for this character.
● A male has only one X chromosome, which he receives from his mother.
● He is colour blindness if his mother is carrier.
● A female becomes colourblind, when her mother is a carrier and father is colourblind.
DATE:
EXP. NO.:

PREPARATION OF A TEMPORARY MOUNT OF ONION ROOT TIP TO

STUDY MITOSIS
Aim:
Prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis.

Requirement: Onion bulbs, wide mouth glass tubes/jar/bottle, glacial

acetic acid, ethanol 2-4%, Acetocarmine stain, HCl, spirit lamp, slide, cover
slips, blotting paper, molten wax/nail polish and compound microscope

Procedure:
● Take a medium sized bulb of onion and trim off the old roots from the
base by the help of sharp blade.
● Place the bulbs in a beaker containing water to grow the root tips.
● It may take around 4 to 6 days for the new roots to grow and appear.
● Trim around 3 cm of the newly grown roots and place them in a watch
glass
● With the help of forceps, shift it to a vial holding freshly prepared
aceto-alcohol i.e., a mixture of glacial acetic acid and ethanol in the
ratio 1:3
● Allow the root tips to remain in the vial for one complete day.
● With the help of forceps, pick one root and set in on a new glass slide.
● With the help of a dropper, allow one drop of N/10 HCl to come in
contact with the tip of the root. Additionally, add around 2 to 3 drops
of the acetocarmine stain.
● Heat it lightly on the burner in such a way that the stain does not dry
up.
● Excessive stain can be carefully treated using filter paper.
● The more stained part of the root tip can be trimmed with the help of a
blade.
● Discard the lesser stained part while retaining the more stained
section.
● Add a droplet of water to it.
● With the help of a needle, a coverslip can be mounted on it.
 ● Gently tap the coverslip with an unsharpened end of a needle in order
for the meristematic tissue of the root tip present under the coverslip
to be squashed properly and to be straightened out as a fine cell layer
● The onion root tip cells’ slide is now prepared and ready to be
examined for different stages of mitosis. Observe and study mitosis by
placing the slide under the compound microscope.

Observation:
1. Interphase:
The cells are mostly rectangular, oval or even circular in shape, with
almost centrally situated densely stained nucleus. The chromatic (coloured)
material of the nucleus is homogeneous and looks granular. The boundary
of the nucleus is distinct. One or few nucleoli (sing: nucleolus) can also be
observed inside the nucleus.
2. Prophase
Intact nuclear outline is seen. The chromatin (seen as a homogeneous
material in the nucleus at interphase) appears as a network of fine threads
(chromosomes). Nucleoli may or may not be visible.
3. Metaphase
The nuclear membrane disappears. Chromosomes are thick and are
seen arranged at the equatorial plane of the cell. Each chromosome at this
stage has two chromatids joined together at the centromere. Nucleolus is
not observed during metaphase.
4. Anaphase
This stage shows the separation of the chromatids of each
chromosome. The chromatids separate due to the splitting of the
centromere. Each chromatid now represents a separate chromosome as it
has its own centromere. The chromosomes are found as if they have moved
towards the two poles of the cell. The chromosomes at this stage may look
like the shape of alphabets 'V', 'J' or 'I' depending upon the position of
centromere in them
5. Telophase
Chromosomes reach the opposite poles, lose their individuality, and
look like a mass of chromatin. Nuclear membrane appears to form the
nuclei of the two future daughter cells

Precautions:
The base of the onion bulb should be in contact with water while growing
the roots.
Clean the slide and coverslip thoroughly before use.
Avoid air bubbles while putting coverslip on the slide.
Root tips should be fixed in the morning between 8 to 10 am.
Exp. No.:

Date:

STUDY OF ADAPTATIONS IN PLANTS

XEROPHYTIC ADAPTATION IN PLANTS

Acacia arabica (Babool or Kikar)

IDENTIFICATION:

The specimen kept for identification is identified as Acacia arabica (Babool or

Kikar)

COMMENTS:

1. It is a drought enduring xerophytes.

2. The older parts of the stem are covered over by thick brown corky bark.
3. The leaves are bipinnate to reduce transpiration.
4. The stipules are modified into spines to reduce transpiration and prevent
grazing.

Opuntia

Identification

The specimen kept for identification is identified as Opuntia dellini (Cactus)

1. It is succulent or drought resisting xerophytes, which grows wild in arid areas.

2. The leaves are caduceus. They fall down soon after their formation to reduce
transpiration.
3. The stem is jointed, flattened and green called phylloclades. It is green and takes over
the function of photosynthesis.
4. The stem becomes fleshy due to storage of water. The stored water is used throughout
the unfavorable periods.
5. The stem possesses abundant mucilage, which helps in retaining water.
6. Phylloclades bear several nodes or areoles. The areoles have one or more spines which
represent the leaves of axillary branches.
7. Besides there are a number of bristles to reduce transpiration and prevent grazing.
Eichhornia (Water Hyacinth or Jalkumbhi)

UTRICULARIA (BLADDER WORT)

IDENTIFICATION:

The specimen kept for identification is identified as Eichhornia (Water Hyacinth or

Jalkumbhi)

COMMENTS:

1. It is a free-floating hydrophyte that grows in ponds, lakes and water bodies containing
freshwater.
2. When the level of water is low, the plant gets rooted in the soil.
3. The stem is offset that grows prostrate below the surface of water. It is spongy and
stores air.
4. The leaves arise at the node in clusters. The petioles of the leaves are inflated that keep
the leaves out of water.
5. The nodes also bear clusters of brown adventitious roots in water. They act as
balancers.
6. The emerged leaves have waterproof, waxy and cuticular coating to prevent wetting.

UTRICULARIA (BLADDER WORT)

IDENTIFICATION:

The specimen kept for identification is identified as Utricularia (bladder wort)

Comments:

1. It is a floating hydrophyte that grows abundantly in tanks and lakes.

2. The stem is horizontal, soft and spongy. The roots are absent.
3. The leaves are highly segmented. They do not provide much resistance to water
currents.
4. The plant bears small sub-sessile bladders on its segmented leaves. The catch and
digest small aquatic animals.
5. The whole plant is covered with the mucilage to prevent decaying by water.
 KANGAROO RAT

CAMEL:
ADAPTATION IN ANIMALS

KANGAROO RAT:

IDENTIFICATION:

The picture kept for identification is identified as Kangaroo Rat.

Comments:

1. It is a xerocole rodent, which avoid heat by adopting nocturnal habits.

2. It conserves water by excreting solid urine and can live from birth to death
without drinking water.
3. It seal its burrow during daytime to keep its chamber moist.
4. It obtains water from its own metabolic processes and from hygroscopic water
in its food.

CAMEL:

IDENTIFICAITON:

The picture kept for identification is identified as Camel.

COMMENTS:

1. It is a xerocoles animal adapted to the desert condition.

2. It is able to tolerate wide range of temperature fluctuations and is able to
maintain blood moisture even during hard period.
3. It excretes concentrated urine and can withstand dehydration up to 25% of its
body weight.
4. It accumulates its fat in the hump rather than all over the body. This speeds
heat flow away from the body and its thick coat prevents the flow of heat
inwards to the body.
5. Its feet has two toes each with fleshy pad below which spread the load on sand
enable it to move on hot and slippery sand.
6. Its slender snout bears a cleft upperlip, long eye lashes and muscular nostrils
which can be closed for protection from sand storm.
FISH

PRAWN
FISH (CARP)

IDENTIFICATION:

The picture/specimen kept for identification is identified as fresh water fish (Carp)

COMMENTS:

1. Its body is compressed laterally to reduce friction and to allow swift passage in water
while swimming.
2. It possesses fins that help in swimming.
3. It has air bladder or swim bladder which maintains buoyancy.
4. It possesses gills as organs of respiration for the exchange of gasses in water.
5. The body is covered with water impermeable scales to prevent osmotic entry of water
in the body.
6. Operculum protects the gills

PRAWN

IDENTIFICATION:

The SPECIMEN kept for identification is identified as PRAWN

1. Like other organisms living under water, prawns have also developed external gills to
breath in water.
2. Although their fins are not like fishes, they swim in water by pushing themselves on
their abdomen.
3. They have big eyes that move in and out to see in the darkness.
4. Their shell blends with the ground to stay protected from predators.
5. They have antennule to sense the ground, and they have nippers to feel and catch the
food.
Entamoeba histolytica
Exp. No.:

Date:

STUDY OF COMMON DISEASE CAUSING ORGANISM

ENTAMOEBA:

IDENTIFICATION:

The slide kept for identification is identified as Entamoeba histolytica.

DISEASE CAUSED:

Amoebiasis or Amoebic dysentery.

COMMENTS:

1. It is a human parasite that resides in the upper part of the large intestine.

2.It causes the disease called amoebic dysentery or amoebiasis.

3. The symptoms of the disease include abdominal pain, repeated motion with blood and
mucus.

4. The parasite is unicellular and has more pseudopodium.

5. There is a single nucleus and a number of food vacuoles.

6. It feeds on red blood corpuscles by damaging the wall of large intestine a reaching blood
capillaries.
PLASMODIUM:

IDENTIFICATION:

The slide kept for identification is identified as Plasmodium vivax (malarial parasite).

DISEASE CAUSED: Malaria

COMMENTS:

1. Plasmodium enters human body in sporozoite by the bite of female anopheles mosquito.

2. The sporozoite is spindle shaped and uni-nucleate organism capable of wriggling

movement.

3. The sporozoite infect liver cells and produce cryptomerozoites. They later enter new liver
cells and produce metacryptomerozites.

4. The metacryptomerozoites enter RBC’s and passes trophozoite segment ring stage and
amoeboid stage and produce schizont stage by merozoites.

5. The merozoites enter fresh RBCs and produce gametocytes.

6. The gametocytes reach into mosquito stomach, when the mosquito sucks the blood of
infected human host.

7. The gametocytes produce male and female gametes in the stomach of mosquito .

8. The male and female gametes fuse to form zygote. The later become worm-like called
ookineate, which penetrate in the wall of stomach.

9. The oocyst produces sporozoites which are released in the haemocoel of mosquito and
reach into the salivary gland and make the mosquito infective.

SYMPTOMS:

1. The symptoms of malaria fever appear about 14 days after the infections bite.

2. Early symptoms include restlessness, less appetite, slight sleeplessness followed by the
muscular pain, headache and feeling of chillness.

3. In response to chills the body temperature starts rising and may reach 106 oF at the height
of fever.

4. A patient sweats a lot and the temperature steadily goes down to normal till the next attack
takes place after 48 hours.
ASCARIS:
ASCARIS:

IDENTIFICATION:

The specimen kept for identification is identified as Ascaris lumbricoids (The giant
intestinal round worm)

DISEASE CAUSED: Ascariasis

COMMENTS:

1. It is an endoparasite of small intestine of human beings and it is more common in children.

2. The animal shows sexual dimorphism. The female is longer than the male.

3. The posterior end of the male is curved ventrally.

4. In female , the genital aperture is present on the mid- ventral line at about one third of the
length from the anterior end.

5. In the male from the cloaca two equal chitinous spicules or pineal setae project which
helps in copulation.

SYMPTOMS:
1. Generally a large number of adult Ascaris worm infect a single host and abstract the
intestinal passage and thereby cause abdominal discomforts like colic pains.

2. The patient may also suffer from impaired digestion, diarrhea and vomiting.

3. In children mental efficiency is affected and growth is retarded.

MICROSPORUM:
MICROSPORUM:

IDENTIFICATION:

The picture kept for identication is identified as Microsporum audouinii

DISEASE CAUSED:

Ring worm of scalps in children Dermatomycosis.

COMMENTS:

1. The free mycelium of the fungus occurs in break in the dermis.

2. It infects hair, where hyphae emerge from the sheath and grow up and down then.

3. Hyphae in the hair put out to the surface fine filament on which spores are very small and
are produced in great numbers, They are readily detached and spread infection.