LIST OF EXPERIMENTS- CLASS 12 BIOLOGY

1. Prepare a temporary mount of pollen germination.

2. Study of plant population density by quadrat method.

3. Study of plant population frequency by quadrat method.

4. Prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip.

5. Isolation of DNA from plants.

6. Flowers adapted to pollination.

7. T.S of testis, ovary and blastula.

8. Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour and size.

9. Pedigree chart of colour blindness.

10. Common disease causing organisms.

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EXPERIMENT NO.1 POLLEN GERMINATION

AIM: To study the pollen germination on a slide in a nutrient medium.

MATERIALS REQUIRED : Different types of flowers like petunia or hibiscus,

slides,coverslip,microscope,water, beaker, nutrient solution etc.

PROCEDURE : i.Prepare a nutrient solution by dissolving 10gm sucrose,10gm boric acid,50mg

potassium nitrate and 50mg magnesium sulphate in 50ml water.

ii. Dust the pollen from a flower over a slide.

iii. Put 2-3 drops of nutrient solution over the pollen grain and mix the content
with needle.

iv. Put the coverslip over it gently and leave it for 10 minutes.

v. Observe it under microscope to see the pollen germination and pollen tube growth.

OBSERVATION: i. Some pollen grains will germinate and develop pollentube. These pollen grains
are viable pollen grains.

ii.Some pollen grains may not show the development of pollentube.They are
called non-viable pollengrains.

RESULT: The viable pollen grains germinate and show variable length of pollen tube.

PRECAUTIONS: i.Dust few pollen grains on the slide to avoid overlapping.

ii. There should not be any air bubbles under the cover slip.

iii. Remove extra nutrient solution with filter

paper. iv.Nutrient solution should be made

carefully.

DIAGRAM I GERMINATION OF POLLENGRAINS AS SEEN UNDER MICROSCOPE

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DIAGRAM II GERMINATED POLLEN GRAIN

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EXPERIMENT NO 2 &3 REFER LAB MANUAL PAGE BO.31 AND 34

EXPERIMENT NO.4 STAGES OF MITOSIS IN ONION ROOT TIP FROM TEMPORARY SLIDE.

AIM: To study the different stages of mitosis in onion root tip from temporary slide.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Onion root tip, slides, coverslips, filter paper,water,watch glass,
microscope,spirit lamp,acetocarmine stain etc.

PROCEDURE: i.Remove the old roots from onion and put it in bottle full of water.New roots appear
in 4-5 days.

ii. Cut the root tips when the root tips are about 2-3 cm in length.

iii. Take a clean slide, take the root tip and palce it on the slide and hydrolyse them
by gentle warming at 37℃ .Then put a drop of acetocarmine stain on it and place a cover slip on it.

iv. Gently squash the root tip with the help of blunt end of pencil so that a thin
and uniform layer fo cells is formed. Press it with your thumb gently.

v. Wipe the extra stain with blotting paper or filter paper.

vi. Observe the slide under the microscope first in low power to locate the dividing
cells and then in the high power to study various stages of mitosis.

OBSERVATIONS : Under low power of microscope ,rectangular cells with pink nucleus are seen
scattered. The following stages are seen under high power.

I.INTERPHASE: i.It is the non dividing phase of the cell cycle.

ii.Nuclear membrane and nucleolus distinct.

iii.Nucleus is filled with a fine network of threads , the chromatin.

DIAGRAM. INTERPHASE

II .PROPHASE: i.It is marked by the early condensation of the chromosomes into visible
structure. Chromosomes become thicker and shorter.
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 ii. Each chromosome is composed of two chromatids joined together at a
centromere.

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 iii. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.

DIAGRAM PROPHASE

III. METAPHASE: i. The chromosomes line up in the centre of the cee i.e., equatorial plane and form
a metaphase plate.

ii.The spindle apparatus is completely formed,and each chromosome get attached

to the spindle fibre at its centromere.

DIAGRAM METAPHASE

IV. ANAPHASE: i.Anaphase is marked by the separtion of the chromatids at the centromere
region. They move towards the poles,dragging the rest of the chromatid behind them by the
spindle fibres.

ii.Once the two chromatids separate , each is called a chromosome .

iii.The daughter chromosomes are at opposite poles.

ANAPHASE DIAGRAM
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V. TELOPHASE: i.The spindle fibres disappear and the daughter chromosomes gradually uncoil to
form fine chromatin network.

ii. Nuclear membrane

reappear. iii.Nucleolus

reappear.

iv. Ctyokinesis occurs simultaneously with end of telophase.

DIAGRAM TELOPHASE.

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EXPERIMENT NO.5 DNA EXTRACTION.
AIM: To extract DNA from the given plant material.
MATERIALS REQUIRED : Fruits (Banana , Kiwi) , water,alcohol,table salt, plastic bag,filter, tooth pick,
dish soap etc.
PROCEDURE : i.Squash the fruit in a plastic bag. Once it is turned into a paste, set the bag aside.
ii.Fill a clear glass with half a cup of water slowly add 2teaspoon of dish soap and half
table spoon of table salt.Gently mix this solution without forming bubbles until the salt dissolves.
iii.Add this solution to the plastic bag containing the squashed fruit.
iv.Flatten out the bag to remove most of the air and then seal it up.
v.Let this mixture remain for 10-20 minutes to allow the soap to release a lot of DNA.
vi.Place filter on top of beaker and pour fruit mixture into it. This solution contains DNA.
vii.Since DNA is insoluble in water we can see alcohol to precipitate DNA from
solution.Add 70 % of chilled alcohol for the extraction. The DNA will come out of the solution at the
boundary layer between alcohol and water. We can see white strings of DNA begin to appear in glass.
viii.We can collect DNA using tooth pick.

EXPERIMENT NO.6 FLOWERS ADAPTED TO

POLLINATION. a.ADAPTATIONS IN ANEMOPHILOUS FLOWERS:

(WIND)

i. Flowers are small and

inconspicuous. ii.Flowers are not

attractive.

iii.The flowers are not scented and showy and not brightly coloured.

iv.Flowers are generally unisexual.

v.Flowers have large stigma and style, stigma may be feathery and protruding.

vi.Pollen grains produced are in large quantity, they are light in weight and small.

DIAGRAM REFER NCERT PAGE NO. 29, FIG.NO. 2.10 ( 2 DIAGRAMS)

(next page you should write 'b' part of second experiment)

b. ADAPTATIONS IN ENTOMOPHILUS FLOWERS: (INSECTS)

i. The petals of the flower are bright in colour. If the petals are inconspicuous (small)
other parts of plant becomes brightly coloured.

ii. The flower secretes nectar to attract insects.

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 iii. Most of the nocturnal flowers are entomophilus and emit sweet scent at night when
the colour is not visible.

iv. When the flowers are small and inconspicuous , they are collected into a
dense inflorescence to become attractive and showy.

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EXPERIMENT NO.7

a.T.S. OF TESTIS- MAMMALIAN TESTIS:

i. In T.S of testis , the seminiferous tubules appear rounded in shape surrounded by

basement membrane and lined by germinal epithelium.

ii. The seminiferous tubules are separated from each other by intertubular tissue which contains
blood vessels and interstitial cells.

iii. In between germinal cells large and prominent sertoli cells are present which provide
nourishment to the developing spermatozoa.

iv. Sperms are formed from germinal epithelium through various developmental stages like
spermatogonia, primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, spermatids and
spermatozoa.

v. Interstitial tissue contain blood vessels and leydigcells (or) interstial cells which secrete testosterone.

DIAGRAM NCERT READER PAGE NO.44, FIG.NO.3.2

PAGE NO. 47 FIG.NO. 3.5

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b. T.S. OF MAMMALIAN OVARY:

i. Each ovary consists of a mass of connective tissue, spindle shaped cells, blood vessels and
nerve fibres , altogether forming the stroma.

ii. In the stroma egg cells are seen in various stages of development.:

Primary follicle(ovum with single layer of follicle cells) which arise from ingrowths of germinal
epithelium.

Double layered follicle (ovum with double layer of follicle cells)

The follicle slowly moves deeper into the sroma and becomes larger. A fluid filled space is formed
separating the developing follicle from other cells except at one point forming the antrum.

Mature follicle or Graafian follicle is formed by further enlargement of ovum and follicle cells.

The mature follicle migrates to the surface of ovary and ruptures to release ovum into the fallopian
tube.

After release of ovum the follicle ceels form a yellowish mass termed as corpus luteum which secretes
progesterone.

Corpus albicans is formed by the regression of corpus luteum.

DIAGRAM REFER NCERT READER PAGE.NO.49,FIG.NO.3.7

( c.T.S OF BLASTULA SHOULD BE IN THE NEXT PAGE.)

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 c. T.S OF BLASTULA:

ii. The blastula appears as a spherical mass of cells surrounding a cavity.

iii. The peripheral layer of cells termed as trophoblast or trophoderm which later
differentiates to form extra-embryon9ic membranes.

iv. Within the envelope there is a fluid filled cavity called blastocoel.

v. Most of the cells inner to the trophoplast is called inner cell mass which develops into embryo.

DIAGRAM REFER PAGE NO. 52 ,FIG.NO.3.11 ( g)

EXPERIMENT-8 MENDELIAN INHERITANCE (REFER PAGE NO.73 OF LAB MANUAL- WRITE FROM AIM……………….
CONCLUSION)

EXPERIMENT-9 PEDIGREE CHART OF COLOUR BLINDNESS.

PEDIGREE CHART OF COLOUR BLINDNESS.

AIM: To prepare pedigree charts for colour blindness.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Colour blindness test book,red and green coloured items such
as thread, wool,piece of cloth.

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PROCEDURE: Test the colourblindness of an individual by using colourblindness test book. The
inheritance of colourblindness can be studied in the following types of marriages. When colour blind
man marries a normal visioned woman,they have no colourblindness children. All male and female
individuals of the F wii be normal visioned woman and a normal visioned man will produce normal
visioned generation females and half of the sons will be normal while half will be colour blind.

When normal visioned man marries a colourblind woman, all sons produced are
colourblind but none of the daughters are colourblind. (Generation)

In the generation II half of the grand daughter are colourblind and half of them are
carrier. Half of the grandsons are normal while remaining half are colourblind.

RESULT: Man always inherits colour blindness from mother. The gene for normal colour sight is
dominant over the gene for colour blindness.

( PEDIGREE CHART FOR COLOUR BLINDNESS SHOULD BE IN THE BLANK PAGE

PAGE)

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EXPERIMENT NO. 10 DISEASE CAUSING ORGANISMS .

a.Ascaris lumbricoides .(Round worm ):

Distribution: World wide.

Habitat: It is a common endoparasite of human

intestine. Identifying features:

Size : The adult females can measure upto 31 inches in length, males are generally shorter.

Colur: Pale

Morphology: Elongated body,cylindrical with tapering ends.

Mouth: Terminal-triradiate surrounded by 3 lips.

Excretory pore: Present behind the mouth on the ventral

side. Lateral lines: 2 lines dorsal and ventral extend

lengthwise.

Dimorphism: Adults are sexually dimorphic.

Infection: Occurs through contaminated food and water . It causes ascariasis.

Symptoms: Symptoms include vague abdominal pain, restless,weight loss,loose stool and occasional
vomiting.During the pulmonary stage there may be coughing and wheezing.

DIAGRAM

b.Entamoeba histolytica.

Distribution: World wide.

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Habitat: It is a common endoparasite in human intestine (large intestine)

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Identifying features: It occurs in 3 forms like Trophozoite (pathogenic), Precystic (non- pathogenic)
and Cystic (non-pathogenic).

Trophozoite form- This is the disease causing ,most active and motile form of Entamoba histolytica.

Size: 18-30 cm in size.

Colour: Transparent

Morphology: Amoeboid.

Pseudopodia: Locomotory structure.

Contractile vacuole: Absent.

Disease: Amoebiasis.

Symptoms: i.Frequent dysentery with necrotic mucosa and abdominal pain.

ii.Recurrent dysentery with blood and mucus in the faeces.

ii. There are intervening gastrointestinal disturbances and constipation.

iii. Cysts are found in the stool.

DIAGRAM

b. PLASMODIUM:

Distribution: Tropical and temporate regions.

Habitat: It is an intracellular parasite of blood of man and other vertebrates.

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Infection: Through bite of infected female Anophles mosquito.

Symptoms: i.The person shows rapidly rising body temperature upto 103℉ - 105 ℉ ,before which the
patient shivers and feels chill,intense headache, nausea, muscular pain etc.

ii. The fever subsides with sweating .

iii. It is a cyclic and it repeats after few hours till it is treated / cured.Each malarial
cyclic attack lasts for 6- 10 hours.

DIAGRAM

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c. Microsporum, Trichophyton,

Epidermophyton. Disease : Ringworm.

Symptoms: i.Ringworm is a popular term for dermatomycosis caused by fungi belonging to genus
Microsporum, Trichophyton, & Epidermophyton,

ii. The fungi is present in the soil and may be transmitted from infected animals or

humans. iii.Ringworm of scalp is called tinea capitis, and of the foot is called tinea pedis .

iv.The fine mycelia of the fungus grow on and under the skin and produce many

spores. v.The fungal spores are very small and detach from the mycelia and cause

infection. vi.Inflammatory or non-inflammatory patches.

vii.Itching and

pain. viii.Hairloss.

ix. Discolouration, thickening and crumbling nails.

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