OHM’S LAW

AIM:
To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential
difference versus current.

APPARATUS:
Resistance wires , a voltmeter (0-3V) , an ammeter(0-3A) of appropriate
range, a battery (eliminator), rheostat, meter scale, one-way key, a screw
gauge, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY:
According to Ohm’s law, the current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends , provided its physical
conditions like temperature, dimensions , pressure etc. of the conductor
remain the same.
If I is the current flowing through a conductor and V ,the potential difference
across its ends, then according to Ohm’s law,
I α V
Or, V α I
Or, V=IR
Where R is the constant of proportionality called resistance of the conductor.
𝑽
Or, R =
𝑰
R depends upon the nature of material , temperature and dimension of the
conducting wire.
To establish the current- voltage relationship, a graph between potential
difference (V) and current (I) is plotted . The graph is a straight line

establishing that
𝑽
𝑰
= constant.
This constant ratio gives the unknown value of resistance.

Specefic resistance (ρ) of the material of the wire is given by

𝑹𝑨
ρ=
𝒍
where, ‘A’is the area of cross section of the given wire and ‘l ‘its length.
If D is the diameter of the wire then,
A = ПD2/l
PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram.
 (II) Note down the value of V and I from voltmeter and ammeter for a
given position of rheostat.
(III) Sfift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter readings
and voltmeter readings show next set of full scale readings and not
in fractions.
(IV) Take atleast 6 sets of independent readings.
(V) Remove the wire and find its length using a meter scale and its
diameter using a screw gauge
(VI) The same procedure is repeated for the given set of 2-3 wires.

OBSERVATIONS :
1. Range of given ammeter =..........................................................
Range of given voltmeter = .........................................................
2. Least count of given ammeter = .......................................................
Least count of given voltmeter = .......................................................
3. LENGTH:
Length of the given resistance
wire 1:......................cm.= ..............................m
wire2: :......................cm.=..............................m
4. DIAMETER :
DIAMETER of the resistance
wire 1:......................cm.=................................m
wire2: :......................cm.=..............................m

Resistance R
(1) Wire 1:
From Calculation:
from V-I graph

(2) Wire 2: From Calculation:

from V-I graph
𝑹𝑨
Resistivity or Specefic resistance (ρ) ρ = where A= ПD2/l
𝒍
 (1) Wire 1:

(2) Wire 2:

RESULT:

The V-I graph plotted for all the three resistance wires were found to
be a straight line.

Resistance Wire 1 :
Resistance of the given wire ( from V-I graph) =
Resistivity of the given wire =
Resistance Wire 2 :
Resistance of the given wire ( from V-I graph) =
Resistivity of the given wire =

PRECAUTIONS:
The connections should be neat , clean and tight.
Voltmeter and ammeter should be of appropriate range.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
The instrument screws may be loose.
Thick connecting wires may not be available.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN -1
To find the relationship between V and I

Voltmeter Ammeter 𝑽
SL. R= 𝑰
Resistance wire reading (V) reading (I)
No. Ω
volt ampere
1
resistance wire -1

2
3
4
5
6
1
resistance wire -2

2
3
4
5
6
1
resistance wire -3

2
3
4
5
6

TABULAR COLUMN -2
 TO FIND DIAMETER OF GIVEN WIRE USING SCREW GAUGE

Pitch of screw gauge =

Total no. of divisions in circular scale =

𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
L.C. of given screw gauge = 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣.𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

= mm

Zero error =...........................mm Zero correction, C ...................................mm

observed corrected
linear scale
circular scale reading diameter diameter
reading(N)
resistance

D0 = N +n x(L.C) D= D0 + C
SL. No. no. of circular
value
scale div. of
mm =nx(L.C). mm mm
reference line
Mm
(n)
1
resistance wire -1

1
resistance wire -2

1
resistance wire -3

Meter bridge-1
AIM:
To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre Bridge.
APPARATUS:
A meter bridge (slide wire bridge), resistance wire/ standard resistance , a
Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, resistance box, a jockey
, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY:
A meter bridge is a modified form of Wheatstone’s bridge.
If R is the known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance
X in the right gap of meter bridge
Under balancing condition,
If l is the length of meterbridge wire from zero end unto balance point, then
𝑿 (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)𝝈
= where 𝛔 is the resistance per unit
𝑹 𝒍𝝈
length of the meter bridge wire.
𝑿 (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
Or, =
𝑹 𝒍
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)𝑹
Or, 𝑿= 𝒍

PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram.
(II) Connect the resistance tightly.
(III) Take out some resistance, say 1Ω from the resistance box and plug
the key.
(IV) Touch the jockey gently first at the left end and then at the right
end of the bridge wire.
(V) Now, note the galvanometer deflection. If it shows opposite
deflection, the connections are correct.
(VI) Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till the
galvanometer shows opposite deflection. It gives the null point B.
(VII) Now, measure AB =l.
(VIII) The experiment is repeated with different values of R in the
resistance box.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of Resistance R =

=...................................................Ω
RESULT

Resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre Bridge.

=...................................................Ω

PRECAUTIONS:

The connections should be neat , clean and tight.

All plugs in the resistance box should be clean, neat and tight.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

The instrument screws may be loose.

Plugs may not be clean

TABULAR COLUMN

TO FIND THE RESISTANCE OF THE GIVEN WIRE

RESISTANCE unknown
FROM LENGTH AB LENGTH BC resistance
Sl. No. RESISTANCE = l =(100-l) X = ((100-
BOX (R) l)R)/l

Ω CM cm Ω

Meter bridge-II
AIM:
To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.
APPARATUS:
A meter bridge (slide wire bridge), resistance wires/ standard resistances , a
Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, resistance box, a jockey
, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY:
A meter bridge is a modified form of Wheatstone’s bridge.
If R is the known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance
X in the right gap of meter bridge
Under balancing condition,
If l is the length of meterbridge wire from zero end unto balance point,
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)𝑹
Or, 𝑿= 𝒍
When two resistors are connected in series, the effective resistance is given
by Rs = R1 + R2

PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram with first R1
(II) Connect the resistance tightly.
(III) Take out some resistance, say 1Ω from the resistance box and plug
the key.
(IV) Touch the jockey gently first at the left end and then at the right
end of the bridge wire.
(V) Now, note the galvanometer deflection. If it shows opposite
deflection, the connections are correct.
(VI) Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till the
galvanometer shows opposite deflection. It gives the null point B.
(VII) Now, measure AB =l.
(VIII) The experiment is repeated with different values of R in the
resistance box.
(IX) Repeat the experiment with R2 in the right gap
(X) Then, connect R1 and R2 in series and repeat
the experiment.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of Resistance R1 =...............................................Ω
Mean value of Resistance R2 =...................................................Ω
Mean value of R1 and R2 in series experimentally,

value of R1 and R2 in series theoretically

Rs = R1 + R2
=
=..................................................... Ω

RESULT
Law of combination of resistors in series, is verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
The connections should be neat , clean and tight.
All plugs in the resistance box should be clean, neat and tight.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
The instrument screws may be loose.
Plugs may not be clean.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN

RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
FROM LENGTH LENGTH unknown resistance
Sl. No. RESISTANCE AB = l BC =(100-l) X = ((100-l)R)/l
BOX (R)

Ω cm cm Ω

2
R1 alone

3 R1=

2
R2 alone

3 R2=

1
R1 and R2 in series

3 Rs=

Potentiometer-1
AIM:
To compare the EMF of two given primary cells using potentiometer.
APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a Daniel cell, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a
galvanometer, a battery ( or a battery eliminator) a rheostat of low resistance
, a resistance box, a jockey , one-way key, a two way key, connecting wires
and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY:
When a constant current flows through a wire of uniform cross- sectional
area and composition, the potential drop across any length of the wire is
directly proportional to that length.
Mathematically, V α l
If l1 is the balancing length obtained on the potentiometer wire for the emf
E1 of the given primary cell, then , E1 α l 1
If l2 is the balancing length obtained on the potentiometer wire for the emf
E2 of the given primary cell, then , E2 α l 2
Hence,
E1 𝑙1
=
E2 𝑙2
PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram.
(II) Connect the positive pole of the battery ( a battery of constant emf)
to the zero end of the potentiometer and the negative pole through
a one way key and a low resistance rheostat to the other end of the
potentiometer.
(III) Connect positive poles of the cells E1 and E2 to the terminal at the
zero end and the negative poles to the two extreme terminals of the
two way key.
(IV) Connect the common terminal of the two-way key through a
galvanometer and a resistance box to the jockey J.
(V) Maximum current is drawn from the battery by adjusting the
rheostat. One way key is inserted.
(VI) Using the two-way key, one of the two primary cells is included in
the circuit.
(VII) Check for opposite deflection in the extreme ends of the
potentiometer wire. If opposite deflections are shown, the
connections are correct.
(VIII) Slide the jockey until null deflection is shown in the galvanometer.
(IX) Note the balancing length as l1.
 (X) Similarly, by including the second primary cell using the two-way
key, l2 is found out.
(XI) Repeat observations alternatively for each cell and for the same
value of current.
OBSERVATIONS
Range of voltmeter =
Least Count of voltmeter =
Emf of battery ( eliminator) =
Emf of Leclanche cell =
Emf of Daniel cell =

CALCULATIONS
Ratio of emf of two cells ( Leclanche to Daniel )
=
RESULT

Ratio of emf of two cells

( Leclanche to Daniel ) =

PRECAUTIONS
The connections should be clean, neat and tight.
The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the
observations are taken.
SOURCES OF ERROR
The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and
material density throughout its length.
End resistance may not be zero.

CIRCUIT DIAGAM
 TABULAR COLUMN

Blalncing length when E1 Blalncing length

( Leclanche cell) in the when E2 ( Daniel
S No. circuit cell) in the circuit
l1 ( cm) l2 (cm)

4
 Potentiometer-2
AIM:
To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using
potentiometer.
APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, a battery ( or a battery eliminator) a rheostat of low
resistance, a galvanometer, a high resistance box , a fractional resistance
box, a jockey , two one-way keys, ,the given primary cell( a Leclanche cell/a
Daniel cel)l, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY:
When a constant current flows through a wire of uniform cross- sectional
area and composition, the potential drop across any length of the wire is
directly proportional to that length.
Mathematically, V α l
If l1 is the balancing length obtained on the potentiometer wire for the emf
E1 of the given primary cell( without shunt resistance in the circuit) , then
, E α l1
If l2 is the balancing length obtained on the potentiometer wire for the
terminal p.d. of the given primary cell( with the shunt resistance in the
circuit) then , V α l2
Internal resistance of the given cell is given by
𝐸
r =( 1 − ) R
𝑉

𝒍𝟏
r =( 1 − 𝑙2 ) R

𝑙1−𝑙2
r =( )R where R is the shunt
𝑙2
resistance in parallel with the given cell.

PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram.
(II) Connect the positive pole of the battery ( a battery of constant emf)
to the zero end of the potentiometer and the negative pole through
a one way key and a low resistance rheostat to the other end of the
potentiometer.
(III) Connect positive poles of the cell E to the terminal at the zero end
of potentiometer and the negative pole to a jockey J through a
galvanometer and a high resistance box.
 (IV) Maximum current is drawn from the battery by adjusting the
rheostat. One way key is inserted.
(V) The shunt is not included in the circuit.
(VI) Check for opposite deflection in the extreme ends of the
potentiometer wire. If opposite deflections are shown, the
connections are correct.
(VII) Slide the jockey until null deflection is shown in the galvanometer.
(VIII) Note the balancing length as l1.
(IX) Similarly, by including the shunt resistance using the one-way
key in the secondary circuit, balancing length l2 is found out.
(X) Repeat observations alternatively for the cell with and without
shunt resistance and for the same value of current.
OBSERVATIONS
Range of voltmeter =
Least Count of voltmeter =
Emf of battery ( eliminator) =
Emf of given primary cell =
CALCULATION
𝑙1−𝑙2
r =( ) R =
𝑙2

RESULT
The internal resistance of the given cell is found to increase with
external resistance.
PRECAUTIONS
The connections should be clean, neat and tight.
The cell should not be disturbed during the experiment.
SOURCES OF ERROR
The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and
material density throughout its length.
End resistance may not be zero.
EMF of driver cell may not be greater than the given cell’s emf.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN

Balancing
Balancing internal
Shunt length with
length without resistance
resistance shunt
S No. shunt resistance r = ( (l1-l2)
(R) resistance in
in the circuit /l2 ) R
the circuit

Ω l1 ( cm) l2 (cm) Ω

4
 Galvanometer half deflection
AIM:
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and
to find its figure of merit.
APPARATUS:
A Galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery two resistance boxes, two one-way
keys a rheostat , an ammeter of a given range and connection wires.
THEORY :
The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method
is given by
𝑅𝑆
G=
𝑅−𝑆
Where R is the resistance connected
in series with the galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.
The figure of merit of the given galvanometer is given by
𝐸
K= (𝑅+𝐺 )𝜃
Where E is the emf of the cell
and θ , the deflection produced with resistance R.
The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer
Ig = nK where n is the total no. of
divisions on the galvanometer scale on either side of zero.
PROCEDURE :
a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram.
(II) Take out the high resistance ( say, 10,000Ω) from the resistance
box and insert key K1 only.
(III) Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum and within
the scale. Let the deflection be θ.
(IV) Insert K2 also and without changing the value of R , adjust the
value of shunt resistance S such that the deflection in the
𝜽
galvanometer reduces to half the value already obtained.( i.e, ).
𝟐
(V) Note the value of S.
(VI) A set of observations are taken in the same way by changing the
value of R and adjusting S.
b) Figure of merit
(I) Make connections as shown in diagram.
(II) Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection θ when the
circuit is closed.
(III) Repeat the steps to obtain valus for R for different values of
deflection.
 CALCULATIONS
Mean value of galvanometer resistance, G =
Mean value of figure of merit , K =

RESULT:
Resistance of the given galvanometer , G =
Figure of merit of the given galvanometer, K =

PRECAUTIONS:
The connections should be clean, neat and tight.
The plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
The screws of the instruments may be loose.
The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 TABULAR COLUMN:

deflection in Shunt half galvanometer figure of

Resistance
galvanometer resistance deflection resistance merit
S.No. (R)
(θ ) (S) (θ/2) G=RS/(R-S) K=E/(R+G )θ
Ω div Ω div Ω A/div.

6
 CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM:
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror
and to find the focal length.
APPARATUS:
Light box, concave mirror, mirror holder, screen & meter scale.
THEORY:
If u is the object distance, v the image distance and f focal length of the given
mirror, then
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
By Mirror formula, = +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗

𝒖𝒗
Or, f = 𝒖+𝒗

PROCEDURE:
(I) Mount the concave mirror in the mirror holder and place a screen
in front of it.
(II) Find the rough focal length of the mirror by focusing a very distant
tree on the screen. The distance between the screen and the mirror
gives the rough focal length (distant object method).
(III) Now, Keep the light box in front of the mirror in a suitable
position.
(IV) For a known value of u, v is found out.
(V) A set of observations are done.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of focal length of the given concave mirror= cm= m
RESULT:
Focal length of the given concave mirror = m

PRECAUTIONS:
Readings should be taken carefully.
Parallax error should be avoided.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax error removal may not be perfect.
Mirror may not be clean.

RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:

image
Object focal length (f)
distance
S.No. distance (u) f= uv / (u+v)
(v)
cm cm cm

5
 CONVEX LENS
AIM:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and
v
APPARATUS:
An optic bench with three uprights ( central upright fixed and two outer
uprights with lateral movement) , two needles , convex lens, lens’ holder,
screen & meter scale.
THEORY:
If u is the object distance, v the image distance and f focal length of the given
lens, then
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
By lens formula, = −
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖

𝒖𝒗
Or, f = 𝒖−𝒗

PROCEDURE:
(I) Mount the convex lens in the lens holder and place a screen in
front of it.
(II) Find the rough focal length of the lens by focusing a very distant
tree on the screen. The distance between the screen and the mirror
gives the rough focal length (distant object method).
(III) The object needle is mounted in the outer laterally movable upright
near the zero end.
(IV) The given convex lens is mounted on the fixed upright at the centre
in a suitable position.
(V) The height of the object needle is adjusted to make its tip is in level
with the optic centre of the lens.
(VI) The image needle is mounted on the upright near the other end of
the optic bench.
(VII) The object needle is kept at a given value of u
(VIII) Now , from the other end, height of image needle is adjusted such
that its tip coincides with the tip of image of object needle.
(IX) The upright(image needle) is now moved to and fro until parallax
is completely eliminated.
(X) This gives the position of v corresponding to selected value of u.
(XI) The experiment is repeated for different values of u.
CALCULATIONS:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm = m
Focal length of the given convex lens (from calculations ) = cm
= m
Focal length of the given convex lens (from u-v graph ) = cm
= m

RESULT:
u-v graph is a rectangular hyperbola.
Focal length of the given convex lens (from u-v graph ) = m

PRECAUTIONS:
Readings should be taken carefully.
Parallax error should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance
at least 30 cm away from the needle..

SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax error removal may not be perfect.
Uprights may not be vertical.

RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:

image
Object focal length (f)
distance
S.No. distance (u) f= uv / (u-v)
(v)
cm cm cm

5
 CONVEX MIRROR
AIM:
To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
APPARATUS:
Light box, convex mirror, convex lens , mirror holder, lens holder, screen &
meter scale.
THEORY:
If R is the radius of curvature of a given mirror, then its focal length,
𝑹
f= 𝟐

PROCEDURE:
(I) Mount the convex lens in the lens holder and place a screen in
front of it.
(II) Find the rough focal length of the lens by focusing a very distant
tree on the screen. The distance between the screen and the mirror
gives the rough focal length (distant object method).
(III) Now, Keep the convex lens in front of the light box in a suitable
position to obtain a sharp , real and inverted image on the screen.
(IV) Now the convex mirror is placed in between the lens and the screen
to obtain a clear and sharp image on the side of the light box itself.
(V) The distance between the mirror and the screen is measured.
CALCULATIONS:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens= cm= m
Mean focal length of the given convex mirror = cm = m
RESULT:
Focal length of the given convex mirror = m

PRECAUTIONS:
Readings should be taken carefully.
Parallax error should be avoided.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax error removal may not be perfect.
Mirror and lens may not be clean.

RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:

Distance between focal

screen and mirror ( length (f)
S.No.
R ) f= R/ 2
cm cm

3
 PRISM
AIM :
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a
graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

APPARATUS:
Prism, drawing board, white paper, drawing pins , graph paper &
protractor.

THEORY:
When a ray of light passes through a prism it suffers a deviation in
its path. The angle between the incident ray direction and the
emergent ray gives the angle of deviation (δ )
When the angle of incidence gradually increases, the angle of
deviation is found to decrease first , reach a minimum value and
then, increase.
The minimum angle of deviation attained in the prism is called angle
of minimum deviation ( δm ).

PROCEDURE:
(I) Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board using pins.
(II) Draw two parallel lines and making these lines as a base
and sketch six boundary of prisms with suitable spacing.
(III) Draw normal to one side of the prism outlines.
(IV) Draw straight lines making angles 35 0, 400, 450,500,550
& 600 to the normals drawn in each prism outlines.
(V) First take one prism outline and fix two office pins
vertically such that the distance between the pins should
be minimum of 1 cm.
(VI) Keep the prism within the drawn boundary and from the
other face look at the image of the pins.
(VII) Closing one eye, try fixing a pin on the side such that it is
in line with the images of other two pins.
(VIII) Same way, try fixing one more pin so that all the two pins
are in line with the images of other two pins.
 (IX) Now, remove the pins and encircle the pricks on the paper
and join the two points with the face of the prism to obtain
the emergent ray.
(X) Produce the emergent ray to meet the incident ray
produced. The angle between the two is measured.
(XI) The same procedure is repeated for all other angles of
incidence being marked.
CALCULATIONS:
Angle of minimum deviation from i-d graph ( δm) =

RESULT:
The i-d graph indicates that ,when the angle of incidence gradually
increases, the angle of deviation decreases first , reaches a minimum
value and then increase.
The angle of minimum deviation from i-d graph ( δm ).=

PRECAUTIONS:

The pin should be fixed vertical.

The distance between the pins should be around a two finger gap.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

Angle measurements may not be accurate.

Pin pricks on paper may be too thick.

SAMPLE GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

angle of incidence angle of deviation

S.No. (i) ( δ )

degree degree
1 350

2 400

3 450

4 500

5 550

6 600
 GLASS SLAB ( TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE)
AIM :
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
APPARATUS:
A travelling microscope, glass slab, lycopodium powder.
THEORY:
Refractive index of the slab,
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏
n = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏
PROCRDURE:
(I) Make the microscope horizontal and adjust the eye-piece to have a
clear visibility of the cross wire.
(II) Keep an ink dot or a cross (object) on the horizontal table of
travelling microscope and focus on it till a clear image is seen.
(III) Note the main scale and vernier coincidence. These will give the
first microscope reading (R1).
(IV) Now place the glass slab over the ink dot/ cross. Now adjust the
position of eye-piece of microscope till the image is clear.
(V) Note the readings. It will give R 2.
(VI) Spread a little lycopodium powder on the top of the slab and focus
the eye-piece on the powder granules.
(VII) Note the readings. It will give R 3.
(VIII) Repeat the steps for two more observations.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of refractive index , n =
RESULT:
Refractive index of the given glass slab =
PRECAUTIONS :
In microscope , the parallax should be completely removed.
The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back lash
error.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
The microscope may not be properly calibrated.
Parallax is not eliminated completely.
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT

RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:
Total
vernier VSR
reading ref. Index ,
S. microscope MSR coincid = nx
( MSR + 𝑅3−𝑅1
No. Readings ence(n) L.C. n =
VSR) 𝑅3−𝑅2
cm cm cm
Without slab
with slab
1 with
lycopodium
powder
Without slab

with slab
2
with
lycopodium
powder

Without slab

with slab
3
with
lycopodium
powder

DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
AIM :
To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward
bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS:
A pn Jn. Diode, a 3V battery, a 50 V battery, high resistance rheostat, 0-3V
voltmeter, 0-50V voltmeter, 0-100µA ammeter, one way key, connecting
wire and sand paper.
THEORY:
FORWARD BIASED CHARACTERISTICS:
When the p-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal and n-
section connected to negative terminal of the battery, then it is forward
biased.
REVERSE BIASED CHARACTERISTICS:
When the p-section of the diode is connected to negative terminal of the high
voltage and n-section connected to negative terminal of the battery, then it
is reverse biased.
PROCEDURE:
(I) Connect the apparatus as per the circuit diagram.
(II) Least count and zero error of ammeter and voltmeter are noted.
(III) The moving contact of the potential divider is so adjusted that the
ammeter and voltmeter show zero deflection.
(IV) Now the forward bias voltage is varied in slow steps. For each value
of voltmeter reading corresponding readings in ammeter is noted.
(V) Similarly, voltmeter and ammeter readings when reverse biased is
also taken.

RESULT:
The V-I characteristics of pn jn. Diode is drawn.

PRECAUTIONS:
All connections should be clean , neat and tight.
Biasing beyond breakdown should not be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
Connections may be loose.
Junction diode used may be faulty.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN.

Forward biasing Reverse biasing

forward forward reverse Reverse
voltage current voltage current
(v) (mA) (v) (µA)