CONTENTS:-

 Basics about magnetic effects of current and magnetism

 Brief introduction into the different types of Galvanometers

along with brief description

 General structure of a moving coil galvanometer

 Conversion of a Galvanometer into an Ammeter

 Conversion of a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter

Basics about Magnetic Effects of Current and
Magnetism:-

 Introduction:-
Electromagnetism: The branch of physics which deals with interaction of electric
current or fields and magnetic fields.

Magnetic field: A region of space near a magnet, electric current or moving

charged particle in which magnetic effects are exerted on any other magnet,
electric current, or moving charged particle. It is also known as magnetic flux
density or magnetic induction or magnetic field.

Unit: Weber/m2 or Tesla Dimensions: [MT-2A-1]

Biot-Savart’s Law:-
With the help of experimental results, Biot and Savart arrived at a mathematical
expression that gives the magnetic field at some point in terms of the current that
produces the field.

Magnetic Field Lines: In order to visualize a magnetic field graphically, Michael

Faraday introduced the concept of field lines. Field lines of magnetic field are
imaginary lines which represents direction of magnetic field continuously.

 Magnetic field lines emanate from or enter in the surface of a magnetic

material at any angle.
 Magnetic field lines exist inside every magnetized material.
 Magnetic field lines can be mapped by using iron dust or using compass
needle.
 They are closed curves.
 Tangent drawn on any point on field lines represents direction of the field at
that point.
 Field lines never intersect each other.

Lorentz Force:-
When a charge is moving in a region, where both electric field and magnetic
field having magnitudes E and B respectively exist, then electric and magnetic
forces are acting on it. The resultant of these forces is called electromagnetic
force or Lorentz force on charge.
Magnetic Moment:-
Magnetic moment of a bar magnet is defined as a vector quantity having
magnitude equal to the product of pole strength (m) with effective length (l) and
directed along the axis of the magnet from South to North pole.

𝑀=𝑚.𝑙

Magnetic Moment of a current carrying coil (loop):

A current carrying coil behaves like a magnetic dipole. The face of coil in which
current appears to flow anticlockwise acts as North Pole while face of coil in
which current appears to flow clock wise acts as South Pole.
TYPES OF GALVANOMETERS:-

 Tangent Galvanometer:- It works by using a compass needle to compare the

magnetic field generated by an unknown current to the magnetic field of the
Earth. It was used earlier. It was first given by Claude Pouillet. It contains an
insulated copper wire coil on a non-magnetic circular frame.

 Astatic Galvanometer:- It does not use the Earth’s magnetic field for measuring
the current. It was developed by Leopoldo Nobili. It contains two magnetized
needles that run parallel to each other, suspended by a silk thread, with their
magnetic poles reversed. The lower needle gets deflected by the passing
current’s magnetic field. The second needle cancels out the dipole movement
of the first one to cancel out the effects of Earth’s magnetic field.

 Mirror Galvanometer:- It is used to achieve higher sensitivity for detecting

extremely small currents. It contains horizontal magnets which are suspended
from a fine fiber inside of the vertical coil, with an attached mirror to its
magnets. A beam of light reflects from the mirror acts as a long mass-less
pointer by falling on a graduated scale across the room.

 Ballistic Galvanometer:- It is sensitive in mature and used to measure the

quantity of charge that is discharged through it. The moving part of the
galvanometer has a large moment of inertia, giving it a long oscillation period.
It may be of the moving coil type or of the moving magnet type
Moving Coil Galvanometer:-

 Introduction:-
A galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument for detecting and
indicating electric current. A galvanometer works as an actuator, by producing
a rotary deflection (of a "pointer"), in response to electric current flowing
through a coil in a constant magnetic field. Galvanometers developed from the
observation that the needle of a magnetic compass is deflected near a wire
that has electric current flowing through it, first described by Hans Oersted in
1820. They were the first instruments used to detect and measure small
amounts of electric currents. Sensitive galvanometers have been essential for
the development of science and technology in many fields. Galvanometers
also had widespread use as the visualising part in other kinds of analog meters,
for example in light meters, VU meters, etc., where they were used to measure
and display the output of other sensors.

 Principle:-
When a current carrying coil is suspended in a uniform magnetic field it is acted
upon by a torque. Under the action of this torque, the coil rotates and the
deflection in the coil in a moving coil galvanometer is directly proportional to the
current flowing through the coil.
 Construction:-
It consists of a rectangular coil of thin insulated copper wires having a large
number of turns. The horseshoe magnet has cylindrically concave pole-pieces.
Due to this shape, the magnet produces radial magnetic field so that when coil
rotates in any position its plane is always parallel to the direction of magnetic
field. When current flows through the coil it gets deflected. A soft iron cylinder is
fixed inside the coil such that the coil can rotate freely between the poles and
around the cylinder. Due to the high permittivity, the soft iron core increases the
strength of the radial magnetic field.

 Working:-
When a current flows through the coil, a torque acts on it. This torque is given by
the equation 𝜏 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵 where the symbols have their usual meaning. Since the
field is radial by design, we have taken sin 𝜃 = 1 in the above expression for the
torque. The magnetic torque 𝜏 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵 tends to rotate the coil. A spring Sp
provides a counter torque 𝜏 = 𝐾𝜑 that balances the magnetic torque 𝜏 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵;
resulting in a steady angular deflection 𝜑. In equilibrium, 𝐾𝜑 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴𝐵 where 𝐾 is
the torsional constant of the spring; i.e. the restoring torque per unit twist. The
deflection 𝜑 is indicated on the scale by a pointer attached to the spring. We have
𝜑 =( 𝑁𝐴𝐵 /𝐾 )𝑖.
 The quantity given in brackets is a constant for the galvanometer. Hence,
Galvanometer Constant G can be expressed as:-

𝐺 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵 /𝐾

∴ 𝜑 = 𝐺𝑖

∴𝑖∝𝜑

So, the current through the coil varies linearly with the deflection and so, the
current flowing through the coil can be known by measuring the deflection. The
galvanometer can be used as a detector to check if a current is flowing in the
circuit (this configuration is used in the Wheatstone’s bridge arrangement).

In this usage the neutral position of the pointer (when no current is flowing
through the galvanometer) is in the middle of the scale and not at the left end.
Depending on the direction of the current, the pointer deflection is either to the
right or the left.
Current Sensitivity of Galvanometer:-
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced
when unit

current passes through the galvanometer. A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if

it produces

large deflection for a small current.

∴ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( 𝜑/𝑖) = 𝑁𝐵𝐴/𝐾

Factors increasing Current Sensitivity:-

 Increasing the magnetic field B by using strong permanent horse shoe
shaped
 magnet.
 Increasing the number of turns N. But number of turns of the coil cannot be
 increased beyond a certain limit. This is because the resistance of the
 galvanometer will increase subsequently and hence the galvanometer
becomes
 less sensitivity.
 Increasing the area of the coil A. But it will make the galvanometer bulky
and
 ultimately less sensitive.
 Decreasing the value of restoring force constant k by using a flat strip of
phosphor – bronze instead of circular wire of phosphor – bronze. Quartz
fibers can also be used for suspension of the coil because they have large
tensile strength and very low value of K.
Voltage Sensitivity of Galvanometer:-
The voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection per unit
voltage.

∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜑/𝑉 )=(𝜑/ 𝐼𝐺) =𝑁𝐵𝐴/𝐾𝐺

where G = Galvanometer Resistance

An interesting point to note is that, increasing the current sensitivity does not
necessarily, increase the voltage sensitivity. When the number of turns (n) is
doubled, current sensitivity is also doubled (equation 1). But increasing the
number of turns correspondingly increases the resistance (G). Hence voltage
sensitivity remains unchanged.

Factors increasing Voltage Sensitivity:-

 Increasing number of turns of the coil (N)
 Increasing magnetic field intensity (B)
 Increasing area of the coil (A)
 Decreasing restoring torque per unit twist of the suspension (k)
 Decreasing resistance (G)

Advantages of a Moving Coil Galvanometer:-

 The sensitivity of the galvanometer can be increased by increasing N, B and
A while decreasing the value of k.
 The instrument has a linear scale.
 Since the instrument uses high value of B, the deflection is undisturbed by
the earth’s magnetic field.
 As the coil is wound on a nonmagnetic metallic frame, damping is produced
by eddy currents. As a result the coil quickly assumes the final position.
Conversion of a Galvanometer to an Ammeter and a Voltmeter:-

 Conversion of a Galvanometer into an Ammeter:-

The galvanometer cannot as such be used as an ammeter to measure the
value of the current in a given circuit. This is for two reasons:
(i) Galvanometer is a very sensitive device, it gives a full-scale deflection
for a current of the order of µA.
(ii) For measuring currents, the galvanometer has to be connected in
series, and as it has a large resistance, this will change the value of
the current in the circuit. To overcome these difficulties, one attaches
a small resistance S, called shunt resistance, in parallel with the
galvanometer coil; so that most of the current passes through the
shunt.

The value of shunt resistance depends on the fraction of the total

current required to be passed through the galvanometer. Let Ig be
the maximum current that can be passed through the galvanometer.
The current Ig will give full scale deflection in the galvanometer.
Galvanometer Resistance = G
Shunt Resistance = S
Current in the circuit = I
∴ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔

Since the galvanometer and the shunt resistance are connected in parallel, the
potential difference across both of them is same.

∴ 𝐼𝑔. 𝐺 =( 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 ). 𝑆
∴ 𝑆 = 𝐺.( 𝐼𝑔/ 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )

The shunt resistance is very small because Ig is only a fraction of I.

The effective resistance of the ammeter Ra is (G in parallel with S):-

 𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺. 𝑆/ 𝐺 + 𝑆

Ra is very low and this explains why an ammeter should be connected in series.
When connected in series, the ammeter does not appreciably change the
resistance and current in the circuit. Hence an ideal ammeter is one which has
zero resistance.

Conversion of a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter:-

Voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential difference between the

two ends of a current carrying conductor. A galvanometer can be converted into a
voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with it. The scale is calibrated
in volt.
The value of the resistance connected in series decides the range of the
voltmeter.

Galvanometer Resistance = G
The current required to produce full scale deflection in the galvanometer = Ig
Range of Voltmeter = V
Resistance to be connected in series = R

Since R is connected in series with the galvanometer, the current through the
galvanometer,

∴ 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑉/ 𝑅 + 𝐺

∴ 𝑅 = 𝑉 /𝐼𝑔 – 𝐺
From the equation the resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer
is calculated. The effective resistance of the voltmeter is:-

∴ 𝑅𝑣 = 𝑅 + 𝐺

Rv is very large, and hence a voltmeter is connected in parallel in a circuit as it

draws the least current from the circuit. In other words, the resistance of the
voltmeter should be very large compared to the resistance across which the
voltmeter is connected to measure the potential difference. Otherwise, the
voltmeter will draw a large current from the circuit and hence the current through
the remaining part of the circuit decreases. In such a case the potential difference
measured by the voltmeter is very much less than the actual potential difference.
The error is eliminated only when the voltmeter has a high resistance. An ideal
voltmeter is one which has infinite resistance.