11.

CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

I. OBJECTIVES:

1. To be able to (a) summarize the basic features of a battery and (b) explain how
a battery produces a direct current in a circuit, (c) define electric current.
2. To be able to (a) define electrical resistance and explain what is meant by an
ohmic resistor, summarize the factors that determine the resistance and (c) calculate the
effect these factors in simple situations
3. To be able to (a) define electrical power, (b) calculate the power delivery of simple
electric circuits, and (c) explain joule heating and its significance.

II. KEY CONCEPT:

11.1 BATTERY AND DIRECT CURRENT

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. The Italian
scientist Allesandro Volta is credited with the constructing one of the first practical
batteries. Basically, a battery consists of two electrodes in a electrolyte; a potential
difference develops across the electrodes as result of chemical action.
The electrode that has a number of excess electrons is named the cathode, and
designated the (-) negative terminal of the battery, the other electrode, although in reality
still having an excess negative charge, has a smaller excess than the cathode, and thus
is designated the (+) terminal. It is called the anode. A color code that assigns red to the
anode and black to the cathode.
Because of the difference in charge of the battery terminals. A potential difference
exists between them. The anode having less negative charge is at higher potential than
the cathode. The potential difference across the terminals when it is not connected to a
circuit is called electromotive force (emf). The emf is the maximum potential difference
between the battery terminals. When a battery is connected to a circuit and charges
flows, the voltage across the battery is slightly less than the emf because of internal
resistance. The opening voltage (V) of a battery is called the terminal voltage.
The internal resistance (r) of the battery is the resistance or opposition to charge results
from the resistance of the materials from which the battery is made. Internal resistances
are typically small, and the terminal voltage of a battery is usually only slightly
less than its emf. However, when a battery supplies a large current to a circuit, the
terminal voltage V may drop appreciably below the maximum emf value.
 V

E r

As long as the internal chemical action maintains a potential difference across the
terminals, current is supplied to a circuit. The battery is said to deliver current to a circuit.
Alternatively, we say that the circuit (or its components) draws current from the battery.
Because electrons can flow only in one direction in such a circuit, from negative (-)
terminal (cathode) to the positive (+) to the positive (+) terminal (anode), this is called
direct current (dc).
Electric current (I) in a wire is defined as the net amount of charge (q) that passes a
cross sectional area of the wire per unit time, that is

𝑞
I=
𝑡
where:
q- magnitude of a charge, coulomb
t-time, seconds
I- current, coulomb = Ampere
sec
The combination of units is called Ampere(A), in honor of French physicist Andre Ampere
(1775-1836) an early investigator of electrical and magnetic phenomena.

Sample Problem 11-1.

A cloud of 2.5 x 1019 electrons moved past a given point every 2 seconds. How much is
the intensity of the electron flow?
Solution.
Given:
q = 2.5 x 1019 e x 1 colomb = 4 coulombs
6.25 x 1018 e
t= 2 s
11-2. RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW
The fact that a wire carrying current can become hot, it is evident that the work done
be the applied force in producing the current must be accomplished some opposition or
resistance (R).
Resistance (R) of a wire or other object is a measure of the potential difference (V)
that must be impressed across the current of one ampere to flow through it. The unit of
resistance is ohm (Ω).
Ohm’s law is not a fundamental law in the sense that Newton’s law of gravitation, or
the first and second law of thermodynamics are. There is no law that states that materials
must have a constant resistance. It is an extremely useful generalization that applies to a
wide range of materials, particularly metals, unless otherwise specify, assume the
resistors are ohmic (a resistor that has constant resistance)
Ohm’s law states,” The current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit.”

E
I=
R
where:
E- potential difference, Volt (V)
R- resistance, Ω
I- current, V/Ω or Ampere (A)
Sample Problem 11-2.

What is the potential difference in an electric circuit with a current of 15 A and a resistance
of 4Ω?
Solution.
Given:
I = 15 A
R=4Ω
Required: E
E = I R = (15 A) (4)
E = 60 V

Sample Problem 11-3:

How much current will an electric heater draw from a 120 V line if the resistance of the
heater (when hot) is 26.7 Ω?
Solution.
Given:
E = 120 V
R = 26.7 Ω
Required: I
 E 120 𝑉
I= = 26.7 Ω = 4.5 𝐴
R

Sample Problem 11-4.

A load of 10 Ω was connected to a 12-V battery. The current drawn was 1.18 A. What is
the internal resistance of the battery?
Solution.
Given:
R = 10 Ω
E = 12 V I
= 1.18 A
Required: r (internal resistance of the battery)

E
I=
r +R
I (r + R) = E
I r + IR = E

E − IR 12 − (1.18 A)( 10 Ω)
r= =
I (1.18 A)

r = 0.17 Ω

11-3. LAWS OF RESISTANCE

1. Law of length:
The current through a conductor will decrease if the wire were made longer using
the same power source. This has been proven in experiments. The result of such
experiments enable us to state that the resistance of a uniform conductor is directly
proportional to its length. R=L, or

=
R L
where:
R1- initial resistance L1- initial length
R2- final resistance L2- final length

Sample Problem 11-5.

A copper wire of unknown length has a resistance of 0.80 Ω. By successive passes
through drawing dies the length of the wire is increased to 2 ½ time the original value.
Assuming that the resistivity remains unchanged during the drawing process, determine
the new value of the resistance.
Solution.
Given:
R1 = 0.80 Ω L2 = 2.5 L1
L1
Required: R2

R1 L1
=
R2 L 2

R1L2 (0.80 Ω)(2.5 L1)

R2 = =
L1 L1
R2 = 2 Ω

2. Law of diameter:
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the square of its diameter
or its cross sectional area; that is, R=1/d2 or R=1/A, where d is the diameter and a
is the area.

𝑑
=
𝑑2

where:
R1- initial resistance d1- initial diameter
R2- final resistance d2- final diameter

Sample Problem 11-6.

An iron wire with a diameter of 0.80 mm will have a resistance 0.40 Ω. What resistance
will an iron wire 0.40 mm diameter have if it has the same length as the first iron wire?
Solution.
Given:
d1 = 0.80 mm R1 = 0.40 Ω
d2 = 0.40 mm
Required: R2

R1 𝑑22
=
R2 𝑑12
 R1 d12 (0.40 Ω) (0.80 mm)2
R2 = = (0.40 mm)2 = 1.6 Ω
d22

3. Law of Nature of the Material

Wires of different materials offer different amounts of resistance. At the same temperature, a
copper wire offers only one-sixth the resistance of the iron wire of the same length and diameter. A
silver wire of the same size offer even much less resistance. The resistance therefore of a given
conductor is made of (see table 1 for the list of materials that are consider good conductors). This
is known as the resistivity (ρ) of the wire dependent on the material out of which the wire is made
and its temperature. The resistance of a given conductor at a given temperature is directly
proportional to its length, inversely proportional to its cross sectional area, and dependent upon the
material from which it is made.

ρL
R=
A

where:
R- resistance, Ω
L – length of the wire, m, ft.
A – Area of the conductor, m2, Circular mils (CM)
ρ – resistivity of the material, Ω.m, Ω. CM
Area of a circle: ft

(a) in square units, (b) in circular mil,

π d2 A = d2
A=
4

Circular mil (CM) is the area of a circle having a diameter of 1 mil.

1 inch = 1000 mils
1 MCM= 1000 CM

Insulators and Conductors:

Conductor is a material through which charge can easily be transferred while insulator is a material
which resists the flow of charge.

Conductors Poor Conductors Insulators

 The earth Dry wood Glass Paraffin
 Moist materials Paper Plastics Mica
 Sea water Oil Dry silk Dry air
 Human body Distilled water Sealing wax Rubber
 Metals Porcelain Wood
Table 6. Resistivities of various materials at 20oC
Materials Resistivity (ρ)
Conductors Ω.m Ω.CM/ft
Aluminum 2.82 x 10-8 17
Copper 1.724 x 10-8 10.37
Iron 10 x 10-8 54
Mercury 98.4 x 10-8 577
Nichrome 100 x 10-8 660
Nickel 7.8 x 10-8 47
Platinum 10 x 10-8 60
Silver 1.59 x 10-8 9.9
Tungsten 5.6 x 10-8 33
Semi-conductors
Carbon 3.6 x 10-5
Germanium 4.6 x 10-1
Silicon 2.5 x 102
Insulators
Glass 1012
Rubber 1015
Wood 1010

Sample Problem 11-7.

Determine the resistance of a bus bar made of copper if the length is 10 meters long and the cross
section is 4 x 4 cm.
Solution. First compute for the area of the bus bar.
Given:
L = 10 m 2
A = 4 x 4 cm = 16 cm2 x 1m
= 1.6 x 10−3m2
10,000 cm2

Required: R
ρL (1.724 x 10−8 Ω. m)(10 m)
R= = = 1.08 𝑥 10−4 Ω
A
1.6 x 10−3m2

Sample Problem 11-8

Find the resistance of 2000 ft of commercial copper wire having a diameter of 0.102 inch.
Solution.
Given:
L = 2000 ft
d = 0.102 inch x 1000 mils = 102 mils
1 inch
A = d2 = ( 102 mils)2 = 10, 404 circular mils(CM)
 Required: R

Ω. CM
ρL ( 10.37 ) ( 2000 ft. )
ft
R= = = 1.99 Ω
A 10,404 CM

Sample Problem 11-9.

A coil of copper wire has a length of 600 feet. What is the length of aluminum conductor if its cross
sectional area and resistance are the same as those of copper coil?
Solution.

4. Law of temperature
1
R2 = R1 ( 1 + α ∆t) α=
T+ t
All substances whether metals or non-metals register a change in electrical resistance as the
temperature changes. In pure metals and in most alloys, the resistance increases significantly as the
temperature rises. Over a limited temperature range, the resistance of a metal increases linearly with
temperature.

where:
R1- initial resistance
R2- final resistance
∆t − change in temperature
∆t= tf − ti
α – temperature coefficient of resistance
T- inferred absolute temperature
 Table 7. Temperature coefficient of resistance at 20oC

Material Inferred absolute

α20
temperature, oC
Nickel 0.00600
Iron 0.00550 -180
Tungsten 0.00450 -202
Copper 0.00393 -234.5
Aluminum 0.00390 -236
Lead 0.00390
Silver 0.00380 -243
Zinc 0.00370 -250
Gold,pure 0.00340
Platinum 0.00300
Nichrome 0.00044

Sample Problem 11-10.

An iron wire has a resistance of 200 Ω at 20oC. What will its resistance be at 80oC?
Solution.
Given:
R1 = 200 Ω
ti = 20oC
tf = 80oC
Required: R2

R2 = R1 ( 1 + α ∆t)
R2 = 200 Ω [ 1 + 0.00550/Co(80oC − 20oC ) R2 =
266 Ω

Sample Problem 11-11

The resistance of a copper wire at 30oC is 50 Ω. If the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at
0oC is 0.00427 Co-1, what is the resistance at 100oC?
Solution. Solve first the temperature coefficient of resistance at 30oC.
 1 1 −3 o
α30oC = = = 3.785 x 10 /C
T + ti 234.2 + 30

R2 = R1 ( 1 + α ∆t)
R2 = 50 Ω [ 1 + 3.785 x 10−3/Co (100𝑜C − 30𝑜C)
R2 = 63.25 Ω

Sample Problem 11-12.

The copper field winding of an electric machine has resistance of 46 Ω at a temperature
of 22oC. What will be its resistance at a temperature of 25oC?
Solution.
Given:
R1 = 46 Ω t2 = 25oC
o
t1 = 22 C
Required: R2
1 1 −3 o
α22oC = = = 3.899 x 10 /C
T + ti 234.5oC + 22 C

R2 = R1 ( 1 + α ∆t)
R2 = 46 Ω [ 1 + 3.899 x 10−3/Co (25𝑜C − 22𝑜C)
R2 = 46.54 Ω

11-4. ELECTRICAL POWER

When a resistor is connected to a battery, we say that the resistor “uses up” the
current. The current, however, is never used up in the resistor since it flows back to the
same source of emf. The same is true if any appliance is connected across the line. The
current entering the appliance is exactly equal to the current leaving it. There is, however,
a drop in potential across the appliance, which means the electrical energy has been
transformed into some form of energy when a current is passed through resistors or
electrical devices. The transformation depends on the type of appliance used.
In appliances like toasters, irons, curlers, heaters, and dryers, the electrical
energy is converted to heat. In lamps, the transformation is from electrical energy into
heat and light energy; in charging a storage cell, electrical energy is transformed into
chemical energy. In any case, whenever electrical energy is transformed into some other
form of energy, there is drop in potential across the device after the transformation of
energy.
The energy gained by a charge q from a voltage source having a difference E is
qE. This is the work done by the source on the charge. W=qE. Over time, the average
rate at which energy is delivered to the external circuit by the battery (called the electrical
power, P) is given by

W 𝑞𝐸
P= =
t 𝑡
Since,
𝑞
I=
𝑡

P= EI
In Ohm’s law,
E
I= ; E =IR
R
P = E I = (IR)(I)
P=EI=𝐸()
𝑅 P = I2 R

𝐸2
P=

where:
E- potential difference, V
I – current, A
R- resistance, Ω
P- power, watt
Watt – unit of electrical energy equal to one joule of energy consumed in one second.
Named after the British engineer and inventor James Watt.

Sample Problem 11-13.

A current of 6 A flows through a resistance of 300 Ω in one hour, what is the power?
Solution.
Given:
I=6A
R = 300 Ω
Required: P
P = I2 R = (6 A)2 (300 Ω) = 10,800 W

11-5 ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Since power is the time rate of doing work, sometimes called as the rate of
expenditure of energy, it should be clear that electric energy is the product of power
(watts) and time; if the power remains constant during the period of time t, energy is equal
P t where t can be in any convenient units; however, where power changes do occur
during an extended period of time, it is necessary to sum up the energies of a number of
constant power-time intervals or employ some sort of integration(summation) process that
takes account of the power variation.

E2
W = P t = E I t = I2 R t = t → joules
R
1 watt = 1 joule/second
1 joule = 1 watt-second
 Our monthly electrical bills are based on the electrical energy we take during the month
in kW-hours (kW-h).
1 Kw-h = 3.6 x 106 joules

Pt
kWh =
1000

Sample problem 11-14.

A water heater has a resistance of 5.3 Ω and takes 43.5 A when in operation. If it is in service on
the average of 2 hours per day. How many kW-hr of energy will be expended during a 30-day
month?
Solution.
Given:
R = 5.3 Ω I
= 43.5 A
t = 2 h/day x 30 days = 60 h
Required: kWh

Pt I2 R t (43.5 A)2 ( 5.3 Ω) (60 h)

kWh = = = = 601.74 kWh
1000 1000 1000

Sample problem 11-15.

How much electrical energy, in kWh is delivered to the electric motor during an 8-h period when operating
from a constant 230-V source, if the average currents are 34 A for 2 hours, 38 A for 1 ½ hours, 26 A for 4
hours, and 12 A for ½ hour?
Solution. The power changes during an 8-hour operation, it is necessary to sum up the energies of a number
of constant power-time intervals.

(34 A)(230 V)(2 h) + (38 A)(230 V)(1.5 h) + (26 A)(230 V)(4 h) + (12 A)(230 V)(0.5 h)
=
1000
= 54.05 kWh

11-6 HEAT ENERGY

A current through a resistor involves a conversion of electrical energy into heat energy. If the heat
energy rises the temperature of transmission line conductors, or windings in motors, or other electrical
devices whose function is to do work not related to heating, it is proper to regard as energy loss. On the
other hand, if heat energy is made useful in such utilizes as water heaters, toaster, percolators, flat irons,
only the portion
that escapes is considered as heat loss; it is generally referred to as a power loss if, during the
period of operation, the power is constant.

Ploss = I2 R
When electrical energy is applied to useful heating such as water heater, it is desirable to know
how many gram-calories or British thermal units (Btu) of heat energy are represented by unit of electrical
energy. It was proven by experiments that 1 watt-sec of electrical energy is equal to one joule and also equal
to 0.24 gram-cal.

E2
Q = 0.24 P t = 0.24 E I t = 0.24 I2 R t = 0.24 ( ) t → calories
R

Sample problem 11-16.

A heating coil, which draws a current of 8 A from a 120-V line, is used for heating water- the coil
immersed in 5 liters of water, which is initially at 20oC, the water being in a 300- g container of specific
heat 0.10 cal/g.Co. (a) Find the power of the coil. (b) How long will it take the coil to raise the temperature
of the water to boiling point? (c) At Php10.25 per kWh, how much the process cost?
Solution. Convert the given volume of water into grams.
Given:
I=8A tf = 100oC
E = 120 V 3 mC = 300 g
m = 5 liters x 1 𝑚 1000 𝑘𝑔 1000 𝑔
𝑥 = = 5000 𝑔
W
1
ti = 20oC 1000𝑙 𝑚3 1 𝑘𝑔
(a) Required: Pcoil

Pcoil = E I = (120 V )(8 A) = 960 W

(b) Required: time for the coil to boil the water (t)

The amount of heat needed to boil the water,

Qout = mw CW (tf − ti) + mCCC (tf − ti)
cal cal
Q = 5000 g(1 ) (100oC − 200C) + 300 g(0.10 ) (100oC − 20oC)
out g. C0 g. C0
Qout = 402,400 cal
Since there is no heat loss, Qin
= Qout
0.24 P t = Qout
0.24 ( 960) t = 402, 400
 402,400 = 1746.53 seconds
t=
0.24
(960)

(c) Required: The cost of operation @ Php10.25 per kWh

t = 1746.53 seconds x 1h = 0.5 h

3600 s

Pt (960 W) ( 0.5 h)
kWh = = = 0.48
1000 1000

Php 10.25
Cost = 0.48 kWh x = Php 4.92
kWh

Sample 11-17.
How long will it take to raise the temperature of 1 quart of water in a percolator from 18 to 100oC if the
supply voltage is 120 V and the heater resistance is 24 Ω? Assume a heat loss by radiation of 25
percent.
Solution.
Given:
2.08 lb 454 g
mW = 1 qt. x x = 944.32 grams
1 1 lb.
ti =18oC qt.
o
tf = 100 C E
= 120 V R =
24 Ω

Heat loss by radiation 25%

The amount heat required to boil the water to 100oC,
cal
Q = m C (t − t ) = 944.32 g (1 ) (100oC − 18oC)
out w W f i
g.C0
 Qout = 77,434.24 cal.

Heat loss by radiation

25%,

Qin = Qout + 0.25

Qin
Qin − 0.25Qin =
77,434.24
0.75Qin = 77,434.24
Qin = 103,245.65 cal

0.24 P t = 103,245.65
𝐸2
0.24 ( ) t = 103,245.65

(120)2
0.24 [ ] t = 103,245.65
24
144 t = 103,245.65

t = 717 seconds ≈ 12 minutes