Circuit Analysis

System of units:

The system of units most commonly used was the English & metric. The MKS
& CGS systems draw their names from the units of measurement used with each
system: the MSK system uses Meters, Kilograms &Seconds, while the CGS
system uses Centimeters, Grams, & Seconds.

MSK system :The system of units employing the Meter, Kilogram, &Second as
its fundamental units of measure.

SI system : The system of units adopted by IEEE in 1965 & the USASI in 1967
as the International System of units.

Name Symbol Unit Abbreviations

Dc voltage source volt v

Ac voltage source volt v

Dc current source Ampere A or Amp

Ac current source Ampere A or Amp

Resistance Ohm Ω

Capacitance Farad F

Inductance Henery H

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 Charge Q Coulomb C

Work or Energy W or E Joule J

Frequency f Hertz Hz

Power P Watt W

Magnetic flux ф Weber Wb

Electric flux ψ Coulomb C

Magnetic flux density β Weber/meter2 Wb/m2

Electric flux density D Coulomb/meter2 C/m2

Magnetic field H Ampere/meter A/m

intensity

Electric field intensity E Volt/meter v/m

Resistivity ρ Ohm. meter Ω.m

Conductivity σ Mho/meter υ/m

2
 Permittivity Є Farad/meter F/m

Permeability μ Henry/meter H/m

Reluctance Ŗ Ampere. AT/Wb

Turn/Weber

The structure of matters:

1. The center of the atom consists of protons, which carry a positive
electrical charge, and neutrons, which carry no charge.
2. Electrons, which carry a negative electrical charge, orbit around the center
of the atom.
3. In all nature atoms the number of electrons is equal to the number of
protons.

Fig.: The hydrogen& helium atoms

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  Free electrons are able to move.
 Positive ions only oscillate in fixed position.
 Random motion of electrons when no external forced applied.

Fig.: Random motion of free electrons in

an atomic structure

The electric current:

At room temperature with no external forces applied, there exists within the
copper wire the random motion of free electrons created by the thermal energy
that the electrons gain from the surrounding media. When an atom loses its free
electron, it acquires a net positive charge and is referred to as a positive ion. The
free electron is able to move within these positive ions and leave the general
area of the parent atom, while the positive ions only oscillate in a mean fixed
position. For this reason, the free electron is the charge carrier of electricity in
the copper wire or in any other solid conductor.
The random motion of free electrons is such that over a period of time, the
number of electrons moving to the right over a cross section area, is exactly
equal to the number passing over to the left. With no external forces applied, the
net flow of charge in one direction is zero.

Let us now connect this copper wire between two-battery terminals as shown in
the figure below. The battery places a net positive charge on one terminal and a
net negative charge on the other. The instant the wire is connected between these
two terminals, the free electrons of the copper wire will drift toward the positive
terminal, while the remaining positive ions will continue to oscillate in their
mean fixed positions. The negative terminal is a supply of electrons to be drawn
from when the electrons of the copper wire closest to the negative terminal drift
toward the positive terminal.

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 Fig.: The flow of electron through the
conductor when connected to a battery

The Electrical Current (I) can be defined as the flow of electrons along a
conductor. And it is measured in ampere (amp); which represent the flow of
charge of one coulomb (6.24 × 1018 electrons) past a point in a wire in one
second.
The current in amperes can be defined as:-
dQ Q Q
I  
dt t t
Where:-
I: current (amperes)
Q: charge (coulombs)
t: time ( second)
Conventional current
Conductor

Battery Load

Electron flow

Fig. : Basic electrical circuit

One ampere=6.24×1018 electrons/second

A coulomb of charge (C) was defined as the total charge associated with
6.24×1018 electrons.
One Coulomb=6.24×1018 electrons

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Example: Determine the current in amperes for the charge flowing through an
across section surface is 0.16 C every 64ms.
Solution:
Q 0.16C
I   2.5 Amp
t 64  10 3 sec

Example: Determine the the time required for 4×1016 electrons to pass through
the imaginary surface , if the current is 5mA.
Solution: Find Q
1Coulomb
4*1016 electrons*( )
6.24 *1018 electrons

=0.641*10-2C =0.00641 C
=6.41 mC

Q 6.41* 10 3 C
t= = =1.282 sec.
I 5 * 10 3 A

Example: Determine the number of electrons pass through imaginary surface at

2 sec. if the current is 4mA.
Solution:

I=Q/t
So Q=I × t
Q=4×10-3A× 2sec =8×10-3C
Then No. of electrons =8×10-3C×(6.24×1018electron/1C)

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Simple Electric Circuit:

The applied battery Source (E) in an electric circuit is the pressure to cause the
flow of charge or current (I) through the load (resistor).
E: Fixed dc supply (volt).
R: Resistance (Ω).
I: Current (A).

The Voltage (V) or electromotive force (emf), as the electrical potential, which
provides energy for the movement of electrons in a circuit.
A potential difference of 1 volt (v) exist between two points if 1 joule (J) of
energy is exchanged in moving 1 Coulomb ( C ) of charge between the two
points.
W
V= (volt)
Q

one joule
One volt =
one coulomb

DC voltage source

Types of materials
All material can be divided into three categories according to its resist of
electron flow. These categories are:
1. Conductors: which are the materials in which electrons can flow freely(
metal, acid, and salt solution).
2. Insulators: which are the materials that provide great resistance to electron
flow( glass, rubber, and dry wood).
3. Semi-conductors: are the materials with poor conductivity and cannot be
used as an insulator(Silicon & Germanium).

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Resistance (R):

Resistance is the ability of a material to resist electron flow. the flow of charge
through any material encounters an opposing force , due to the collisions
between electrons & between electrons and other atoms in the material , which
converts electrical energy into heat, is called the resistance.

The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area is determined

by the following factors:-
1. The length of the conductor (l).
2. The cross section area of the conductor (A).
3. The nature of the material.
4. The temperature of the conductor.

l
l
A

Fig.: Different shapes of materials

At fixed temperature of 20 C 0 (room temperature) R is defined as:

l
R ()
A
Where:
R: resistance in ohm ().
l : The length of the conductor in meter (m).
A: cross section area of conductor in (m2).
: the resistivity of the material (-m).

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Example: The resistance of a conductor 1 mm2 in cross-section and 20 m long
is 0.346 . Determine the specific resistivity of the material used.
Solution:
A = 1 mm2 = 1×10-6 m2; l = 20 m; R = 0.346 
l AR 10  0.346
6

R      1.73  10 8 -m.
A l 20

Example: The resistivity of a ferric-chromium-aluminum alloy is 51×10-8 -m

A sheet of the material is 15 cm long, 6 cm wide and 0.014 cm thick. Determine
resistance between (1) opposite ends and (2) opposite sides.
Solution:
(1) as shown in fig. (a)
l = 15 cm = 0.15 m
A = 6 × 0.014 = 0.084 cm2 = 0.084 × 10-4 m2

l 51  10 8  0.15
R   9.1  10 3 
A 0.084  10 6

2) in the case of fig. (b)

l = 0.014 cm = 14 × 10-5 m
A = 6 × 15 = 90 cm2 = 9 × 10-3 m2
l 51  10 8  14  10 5
R   79.3  10 10 
A 9  10 3

(a)
(b)

Fig.: (a) & (b)

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Example: Determine the resistance of 30.48m of copper wire (ρ=1.724*10-4 Ω-
m) telephone wire if the diameter is 0.032 cm .

Solution:
A= r2π = πd2/4 =(3.14)*(0.032)2/4
=8.04*10-4cm2
l (1.724 * 10 6   cm ) * (3048cm )
R= ρ =
A 8.04 * 10  4 cm 2

=6.5Ω

Temperature Effects:
For most conductors, the resistance increases with increase in temperature, due
to the increase in molecular movement within the conductor, which hinder the
flow of charge. Fig. shown below indicate that for copper (and most other
metallic conductors), the resistance increases almost linearly with increase in
temperature.

Fig.: Effect of temperature on the

resistance of copper

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Conductance:

Conductance is reciprocal of resistance ,It is a measure of how well the material

will conduct electricity.
1
G (siemens, S)
R
A
G (siemens, S)
l
A
= σ
l

1
σ= ( / m ) or (s/m)


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 Ohm’s Law :-
Ohm's Law, state that the amount of electric current through a resistance is
directly proportional to the voltage drop across it, for any given temperature.

V I V

 V=I×R I R

Where :-
V: the voltage drop or potential difference across a resistance .
I: current in ampere (A).
R: resistance in ohm ().
Note that the polarities of the potential drop across a resistor are determined by
the direction of the current passes through it.
V=R×I
↓ ↓ ↓
y=m×x
m  slope  R
V
 R=
I

Example: what is the current through a 2  resistor that has a potential drop of
16 V across it?

16 V

I 2

Solution:
V 16
I  8A
R 2

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Electrical power:
Power is an indication of how much work is done in a period of time.

Work (W):
Conversion of energy from one to another form.

Work(W )
Power (P)=
Time(t )

W
P ( watt)
t

1Joule
1Watt 
1sec ond

W
V
Q

 W  V *Q
V *Q
 P V *I
t

Electrical power is the amount of work that can be done by voltage and current.
a watt of power is equal to one volt pushing one ampere of current with one ohm
of resistance. So that:
P=V×I
Where
P : power in (watt)
V: voltage in (volts)
I : current in (ampere)

V 
2
V
P V  I V    P  ( watt)
R R
and

P  V  I  I  I  R   P  I 2  R ( watt )

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Example: A power supply can deliver 100 mA at 400 V. What is the power
rating.
Solution:
P = V × I = 400 × 100 × 10-3 = 40 watt.
Example: What is the power dissipated in a 5  resistor if the current through it
is 4 A.
Solution:
P = I2 × R = (4)2 × 5 = 80 watt.

One horse power ≈ 764 watt

Efficiency η :
Any electrical system that converts energy from one form to another can be
represented by the block diagram has shown with an energy input & output
terminals.

System Energy
Energy (energy stored
or lost) output
input

Energy i/p = Energy o/p + Energy lost or stored in the system

W (i/p) =W (o/p) + W (lost or stored)

Dividing by time (t)

W
and Since p 
t
 Pin = Pout + Plost or stored

Pout
Efficiency  
Pin
P
η%= out *100 %
Pin

The maximum possible efficiency is 100 % , which occurs when P out = Pin

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Example: A 2 hp motor operates at an efficiency of 75 % . What is the power
input in watt if the input current is 9.05 A, then calculate the input voltage ?

Solution:

Pout
η%= *100 %
Pin

0.75= 2 * 746
Pin

1492
 in  =1989.33 watt
0.75

P=E * I
Pin 1989.33
E   219.82 volt
I 9.05

Series circuits
Two elements are said to be in series, if they have only one point in common
and not connected to a third element. Fig.(a) shown below , resistors R1 and R2
are in series since they have only point (x) in common, while for fig. (b) the
resistors R1 and R2 are not in series since their common point (x) is also the
junction for a third resistance.

I
x x
R1 R1 R3
E R2 R2

(b)
(a)
Fig.: Resistors circuit

For fig.(a) above ,the total equivalent resistance (R T or Req )is equal to :

RT=R1+R2

& I= IR1= IR2

Also E = VR1 + VR2

In general the total resistance offered by N resistors in series, is equal to the sum
of the N resistors:
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RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … + R N.

Example: Find RT for the circuit of fig. shown below:

Solution: 4 8
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 R1 R2
= 4 + 8 + 7 + 10 RT R3 7
= 29 .
R4
10 

In series circuit it should be noted that, the same current is passing through
each resistor connected in series so that ( for N series connected resistors
circuit):-

RT = R1 + R2 + R3+ …………. +RN

& IT = IR1= IR2 = IR3= ……………. = IRN

Also E = VR1 + VR2 + VR3 + ………. + VRN

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Parallel circuit:

Two elements are said to be in parallel, if they have two points in common.
Figure shown below, resistors R 1 and R2 are in parallel since they both have
points (a) and (b) in common.

( a)

E RT R1 R2

( b)
Figure : parallel circuit

1 1 1
 
RT R1 R2

& IT = IR1 + IR2

also E = VR1 =VR2

In general, the total resistance of N resistors connected in parallel is given by :

1 1 1 1 1
    
RT R1 R2 R3 RN

Example 10: Find RT for the circuit of figure shown below.

Solution:
1 1 1 RT R1 2 R2 8
 
R T R1 R 2
1 1 1 1
    0.5  0.125
RT 2 8 RT
1
 0.625  R T  1.6 
RT

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In parallel circuit it should be note that, the voltage across each parallel
resistor is the same, and the currents in the parallel resistors is different
depending on the value of each resistance so that( for N parallel connected
resistors) :-
E = VR1 =VR2 = …….. = VRN

& IT = IR1 + IR2 + …….. + IRN

Example: Find the equivalent resistance (R eq) between terminal (a & b) for the
circuit shown below.

5 k 22.25 k
a
R1 R4
R3 30 k R6 30 k R7 50 k
10 k 19 k
b
R2 R5

Solution:
R6 // R7
1 1 1
 
Rx R6 R7
1 1 1 1
    0.05333
Rx 30 50 Rx
Rx  18.75 k

we redraw the circuit as shown :-

5 k 22.25 k
a
R1 R4
R3 30 k Rx 18.75 k

10 k 19 k
b
R2 R5

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Resistors R4, R5 and Rx connected in series
Ry = R4 + Rx + R5 = 22.25 + 18.75 + 19 = 60 k
Redraw the circuit again 5 k
a
R1
R3 30 k Ry 60 k
10 k
b
R2

Resistors R3 and Ry connected in parallel

1 1 1
 
Rz R3 R y

1 1 1 1
    0.05
Rz 30 60 Rz
R z  20 k

so the circuit become

5 k
a
R1
Rz 20 k
10 k
b
R2
Req between (a and b) :
Req = R1 + Rz + R2 = 5 + 20 + 10 = 35 k.

Req 35 k

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Example 12: Find the equivalent resistance (R eq) at (a & b) :-

30 k 40 k

a b
8 k 4 k

60 k 10 k

Solution:
Note that R30 and R60 connected in parallel :-
R1 = R30 || R60 = 20 k

and R40 and R10 connected in parallel too:=

R2 = R40 || R10 = 8 k
The equivalent circuit shown below:-

20 k 8 k

a b
8 k 4 k

the equivalent resistance (R eq) calculated as:-

Req = R8 + R20 + R8 + R4
= 8 + 20 + 8 + 4 = 40 k.

Open circuits & Short circuits

An open circuit can have potential difference across its terminals (A & B) but
the current is always equal to zero ampere.

Fig.: open circuit

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A short circuit can carry a current of any level but the potential difference across
its terminals (A & B) is always equal to zero.

Fig.: short circuit

Short circuit Open circuit

------------------- -------------------
Resistance = 0 Resistance =∞
Potential difference = 0 Potential difference = value
Current = value Current = 0

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