SG1

A. Coulumb’s Law
French Scientist, Charles-Augustin de Coulumb, Conducted the first quantitative work with electric charges. He
discovered that the magnitude of the electrical force between two charged particles is directly proportional to
the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. Mathematically, written as:

Coulumb’s Law Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

There are similarities and differences of Coulumb’s Law and Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. To
differentiate the two forces, we use the subscript e and g for the electrical force and the gravitational force.
Gravitational constant, G = 6.67 X 10-11 N.m2/kg2
Electric constant, k = 9 X 109 N.m2/C2

Sample Problem: Sample problem:

Two balloons are charged with an identical quantity and Calculate the magnitude of electric force between a
type of charge: -6.25 nC. They are held apart at a electron and a proton at a distance of r= 5.29 x 10 -
separation distance of 61.7 cm. Determine the
11
m.
magnitude of the electrical force of repulsion between
them.
Given: Given:
q1 = -6.25 nC = -6.25 x 10-9 C
q2 = -6.25 nC = -6.25 x 10-9 C
r = 61.7 cm = 0.617 m
F= ?
Solution: Solution:
Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law
Electric Flux (Φ) is a measure of the number of field lines passing through a surface.
Mathematically, written as:
 ELECTRIC FLUX

Gauss’s Law
Gauss's law states that. The net electric flux through any hypothetical closed surface is equal to. times the net
electric charge within that closed surface.

Electric Flux Sample Problem

A uniform electric field E= 7500 N/C passing through a flat surface are A=10m2
Given: magnitude E = 7500 N/C
Area= 12 m2
θ = 0°

Gauss’s Law Sample Problem

Determine the electric flux for a Gaussian surface that contains 100 million electrons.
Φ = q/εo
Φ = 100x106(1.6x10-19)/8.85x10-12
Φ = 1.8 N.m2/C

B. Electric Charge
Electrostatics, the study of electromagnetic phenomena that occur when there are no moving charges—
after a static equilibrium has been established. Charges reach their equilibrium positions rapidly, because
the electric force is extremely strong.

Static electricity involves electric charges. Electric charges arise from particles of atom. An atom is made up of
subatomic particles----protons, neutrons and electrons. (Refer to page 4-5)
 Proton - positively charge, its mass is almost equal to the mass of neutron
 Electron- negatively charge
 Neutron- carries no charge

Insulators and conductors

Conductivity is the measure of the ease at which an electric charge moves through a material.
Conductors- materials that readily allow the flow of charges through them. E.g, metals
Insulators- materials that resist the flow of charges. E.g rubber, paper, mica, glass, and air
Another kind of material that is somewhere between insulators and conductors, such as silicon and
germanium, is called a semiconductor or superconductor. Semiconductors are intermediate between
conductors and insulators.

Charging a conductor
(a). An uncharged metal sphere is touched by a charged rod, and
some charge is transferred to it.
(b). Charges move freely on a conductor, and spread out
uniformly because of the same charge repel.

SG2
A. Electric Potential and Potential Difference
We define the electric potential as the potential energy of a positive test charge divided
by the charge q0 of the test charge.

It is by definition a scalar quantity, not a vector like the electric field. The SI unit of electric potential is the Volt
(V) which is 1 Joule/Coulomb. (Refer to page 48-49)

• Potential difference is the difference in the amount of energy that charge carriers between two points
in a circuit. A potential difference of one Volt is equal to one Joule of energy being used by one
Coulomb of charge when it flows between two points in a circuit.

Electric Potential Sample Problem:

A negatively charged particle (q = -2) moves through a 2000 v loss of electrical potential. Will there a loss or
gain of electric potential energy? Will there be a loss or gain of kinetic energy? (Note: Electric force is a
conservative force.)
Given: ΔV= -2000 v
q= -2 C
Solution: ΔV= ΔU/q
-2000 = ΔU/-2
ΔU = 4000 Joules
There is an increase in electric potential energy.
Since the force is conservative:
ΔK = -ΔU = -4000 J
There is a loss of kinetic energy.

Potential Difference Sample Problem:

It takes 5.0 x 10-3 J of work to move a positive charge of 2.5 x 10-4 C from point X to point Y on an electric field.
What is the difference of point between X and Y?
Given: W = 5.0 x 10-3 J
q = 2.5 x 10-4 C
Solution: V = W/q
= 5.0 x 10-3 J / 2.5 x 10-4 C
V = 20 J/C or 20 volts

B. Capacitors
Capacitors is a device for strong charges. A capacitor normally consists of two parallel plates equally but
oppositely charged and separated from each other by a dielectric.

 Capacitance:
Capacitance is the ratio of the charge in one of the plates and the potential difference between the plates. The
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of one plates, inversely proportional
to the distance between the plates, and depends on the dielectric between the plates. (Refer to page 55-57)

C = Capacitor, q = ratio of amount of charge and V is potential difference.

The dependence of the capacitance in parallel plate capacitor is mathematically expressed as:

A= area of one plate, ε = dielectric and d = distance of the plate

Dielectric constant:

εR = dielectric constant, ε0 = vacuum or air and ε = ratio of the permittivity

Sample Problems:
What is the capacitance of a capacitor that stores 12 μC of charge when connected to a 6 V battery?

A parallel-plate capacitor has a plate separation of 2.00 mm and a capacitance of 4.00 F. The area of the
plates is ___ m2. (Assume ε0= 8.85 × 10-12 F/m)

C = ε0 A/d

A = Cd/ε0= (4 F)(0.002 m)÷  8.85 ×10-12 F/m

A = 9.04×108 m2

 Combination of Capacitors
Capacitors may be connected in series or in parallel.
 Series Parallel

Difference of In a series circuit, all components In a parallel circuit, all components are

Parallel and are connected end-to-end, forming a connected across each other, forming exactly
Circuit single path for current flow. two sets of electrically common points.
Charge

Potential
Difference
Capacitance:
Relationship
between charges
and volts

Sample Problems:
What is the total capacitance of the capacitors in the following circuit?

Use the equation:

 
1/Ctotal = 1/2 + 1/4 = 3/4
Ctotal = 4/3 = 1.33 F
SG 3
A. Current Resistivity and Resistance

The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the
electric current which flows through it: The symbol for resistance is R. The unit used for resistance is ohm, and it is
represented by symbol Ω
Resistivity or Electrical resistivity is the resistance of the flow of current from one end to the other in a
material.
RA
ρ=
l
P = resistivity, R = Resistance, l = length, A= area

Sample problem:
The length and area of wire are given as 0.2 m and 0.5 m2 respectively. The resistance of that wire is 3
Ω, calculate the resistivity?
Given:
R=3Ω
l = 0.2 m and
A = 0.5 m2
Resistivity formula is

If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm’s law, I= V/R can be used
to predict the behavior of the material. Although the definition above involves DC current and voltage, the same
definition holds for the AC application of resistors.
Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its bulk resistivity.
The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges of temperature, this
temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of resistance.

B. Ohm’s Law
The law that governs the relations among current, voltage, and resistance in an electric circuit is Ohm’s Law. In
symbols, Ohm’s law may be written as:

I = current in amphere (A) V= potential difference in volts R= Resistance in ohms (Ω)

(V)
From this equation we can derive it to find, the voltage and the resistance.

Formula for voltage is V = IR

V
And for resistance we have R=
I

Sample Problem1 :
While repairing an electric bulb socket, an electrician gets a mild shock when a current of 0.005 A passes
through him. The same electrician is killed by a current of 0.15 A when he turned on an electric bulb while
taking a bath. The voltage in each situation is equal to 120 V. Find the resistance of the electrician in each
situation.
Given:
Solution:

First case Second case

Note: Our resistance is greatly reduced when we

are wet.

C. Energy and power in electric circuit

A source of energy is required to drive current round a complete circuit. This is provided by batteries in the
circuits you have been looking at. The batteries convert chemical potential energy into electrical energy. The
energy is used to do work on the electrons in the circuit.
Power is a measure of how rapidly work is done. Power is the rate at which the work is done, work done
per unit time. Work is measured in joules (J) and time in seconds (s) so power will be J/s which we call a watt
(W).
In electric circuits, power is a function of both voltage and current and we talk about the power dissipated
in a circuit element:

Electrical Power
Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is converted in an electric circuit. It calculated as:
P = I.V
Power (P) is exactly equal to current (I) multiplied by voltage (V), there is no extra constant of proportionality.
The unit of measurement for power is the watt (abbreviated W).

Sample Problem:
Given a circuit component that has a voltage of 5 V and a resistance of 2 Ω what is the power dissipated?
Given:
V= 5 V
R==2 Ω
P=?

Solution:

Electrical Energy
When power is dissipated in a device there is a transfer of energy from one kind to another. For example, a
resistor may get very hot which indicates that the energy is being dissipated as heat. Power was the rate at
which work was done, the rate at which energy is transferred. If we want to calculate the total amount of
energy we need to multiply the rate of energy transfer by the time over which that energy transfer took place.
Electrical energy is simply power x time. Mathematically we written as:
E=P×t

Sample Problem:
1. A 30 W light bulb is left on for 8 hours overnight, how much energy was wasted?
Given
We need to determine the total amount of electrical energy dissipated by the light bulb. We know the
relationship between the power and energy and we are given the time. Time is not given in the correct units so
we first need to convert to S.I. units:
8 hr= 8× 3 600 s = 28 800 s
Solution:
E=Pt=(30)(28 800)=864 000 J

Electric Safety
• Don't work with exposed conductors carrying 50 volts or more.
• Make sure electrical equipment is properly connected, grounded and in good working order.
• Extension cords may not be used as permanent wiring and should be removed after temporary use for
an activity or event.
• Surge suppressors with built-in circuit breakers may be used long-term and are available with three, six
and 15 foot-long cords.
• High amperage equipment such as space heaters, portable air conditioners and other equipment must
be plugged directly into permanent wall receptacles.
• Do not access, use or alter any building’s electrical service, including circuit breaker panels, unless you
are specifically qualified and authorized to do so.
 • Wet environments can increase the risk of an electrical shock.

SG4
A. Resistors in series and parallel
Series
When resistors are connected end-to-end in a circuit (like shown in the picture below) they are said to be in
"series." In order to find the total resistance of resistors in series you just add up the value of each resistor.
Refer to page 101-103.
Parallel
Parallel resistors are resistors that are connected across from each other in an electric circuit.

Parallel Sample Problem:

What is the total resistance “R” across the voltage V in the circuit below?
Answer:
Since the resistors are in parallel we know from the equation above that:

Series sample problem

Using the circuit diagram below, solve for the value of the missing resistance R.

Sample Problem:
Frist we’ll figure out the equivalent resistance of the entire circuit. From Ohm’s law we know that Resistance =
Voltage/current, therefore
Resistance= 50 volts/2amps
Resistance = 25
We can also figure out the resistance by adding up the resistors in series:
Resistance = 5 + 3 + 4 + 7 + R
Resistance = 19 +R
Now we plug in 25 for resistance and we get
25 = 19 + R
R= 6 Ω
SG5
A. Magnetic fields
Magnetic field is a region of space where a magnet is capable of exerting force on a magnetic material.
Magnetic fields force moving electrically charged particles in a circular or helical path. This force—exerted on
electric currents in wires in a magnetic field—underlies the operation of electric motors. Refer to Page 140-141

Magnetic forces on moving charges .

The force on charged particle moving with velocity v in a magnetic field is equal to the charged of the particle
multiplied by the cross product of its velocity and the magnetic field. In symbols,

F= force, q = charge, v= velocity of charge, and B = magnetic field

Magnitude of magnetic field is given by the equation:

SI unit for magnetic field:

Sample Problem:
1. A proton moves through a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 2.0µT at a speed of 5.00 x 106 m/s. a. What
is the magnitude of maximum magnetic force it can experience?
b. If the proton is replaced by an electron, will it experience the same maximum force?
Given:
B = 2.0 µT = 2.0 x 10-6 T q of proton = 1.602 x 10-19 C
v = 5.00 x 106 m/s q of electron = -1.602 x 10-19 C

Solution:
A. Using the equation F= qvB sinθ, the maximum force will be obtained if sin θ = 1. Thus,

B. Magnetic forces on current carrying wires

Refer to page146-147
Sample Problem:

1. A 55. 0 m wire carries a current of 2.25 A in a location where Earth’s magnetic field is 4.5 × 10−3 T . The wire
experiences a force of 0.15 N. Find the angle between the wire and the magnetic field.
Given:
L = 55.0 m
I = 2.25 A

B = 4.5 × 10−3 T

F = 0.15 N
Solution:

Using the equation F=ILBsinθ and substituting values,

F=ILBsinθ

0.15 N= (2.25 A )( 55.0 m ) ( 4.5 ×10 T ) sinθ

−3

sinθ=0.2694
θ=15.626 ° ≈ 15.6 °
 A. Amphere’s Law
 Amphere’s Law is more fundamental and easier to use, especially when calculating magnetic
fields of highly symmetric current distribution. Refer to 148-152
 It is only valid for steady currents.
 It is the counterpart of Gauss’s law in electrostatics, which relates charges to their electric fields.
 Amphere’s law states that the sum of the product of the length of each element and the
component of the magnetic field along the direction of the element is proportional to the current I
that passes through the magnetic loop.
 Amphere’s Law may be expressed as:

Permeability vacuum

 Or in integral form,

Sample Problem:
Each of the five conductors carries 1.0 A into or out of the page as shown. What is the value of the ∑B.L for the
rectangular loop? (see the diagram on page 149)
Given: I = 1.0 A
Solution:
Using the right-hand rule for the square loop, the positive currents point out of the page.
ΣB . L=μ0 I

(
¿ 4 π ×10−7 T .
m
A )
( 1.0 A +1.0 A−1.0 A−1.0 A−1.0 A )

¿−4 π ×10−7 T .m=−1.26 ×10−6 T . m

B. Biot-Savart Law
The Biot Savart Law is an equation describing the magnetic field generated by a constant electric current. It
relates the magnetic field to the magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. Biot–Savart
law is consistent with both Ampere’s circuital law and Gauss’s theorem. The Biot Savart law is fundamental to
magnetostatics, playing a role similar to that of Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.