Sharjah Indian School Boys Wing

Notes on CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric Current (I)
It is the rate of flow of charge through a point.
i.e. I = q/t

Instantaneous current (I) =

dq
dt

Its S.I. unit is C/s or Ampere.

The conventional direction of current is form positive to negative terminal of a battery.
Potential difference (p.d) V
It is the work required to move a unit positive charge from one point to another
in an electric circuit.
Its unit is Volt (V).
e.m.f (E)- It is the amount of energy transferred from a source to drive one coulomb
of charge throughout an electric circuit. It can also be defined as the terminal potential
difference across a cell when it is in an open circuit. Unit:- Volt

Mechanism of flow of current in a conductor

(i) In the absence of an electric field.
The free electrons in the conductor are moving due to thermal motion during
which they collide with the fixed ions. But the collisions take place randomly. Hence
there is no preferential direction of velocity of electrons. Thus there is no net electric
current in the conductor, even though there are a large number of moving free
electrons.
l
(ii) In the presence of an electric field.
The electric field provided by the battery across
the conductor of length l is given by E = V/l
Under this electric field the free electrons experience a force,
F = - e E, directed opposite to the electric field.
+
i.e. ma = - e E

Thus acceleration, a =

eE
m

However, the free electrons do not get accelerated continuously; instead, they collide
frequently with the atoms in their path. Hence the movement of electrons in the
conductor, as a whole, is, not accelerated, rather, on an average, moving with
constant velocity. This average uniform velocity with which electrons move through a
conductor is called drift velocity (vd). The time interval between two successive
collisions of electrons with atoms on the path is called relaxation time ().
Consider an electron just after the collision. The velocity gained can be found
as,
v = u + at

vd = 0 + a

i.e. vd =

eE
m

Relation between current and drift velocity

Consider a conductor of area of cross section A and length l having number of
free electrons per unit volume (free electron density) n. When a current I flows
through it, let the free electrons gain a drift velocity of v d.

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Distance travelled by an electron in t seconds = v d t

Volume of electrons travelling in t sec
= A vd t
The no. of free electrons in the given conductor = n.A v d t
Hence the total charge flowing in the conductor int seconds (q) = e. nA v d t
So, current flowing in the conductor, I = q /t i.e. I = neA vd
Further, current density J = I/A = ne vd
OHMS LAW
It states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference between its ends, at a constant temperature.
i.e. I V
or
VI
V = IR.
Where R is a
constant of the conductor, called its resistance. Its unit is Ohm ().
Factors affecting resistance
(i)
Length (l):- R l(ii) Area (A) :- R 1/A
(iii) Nature
(iv) Temperature :- As temperature increases, resistance also increases.
Thus,

R=

l
A

Where is a constant for a given material at a given

temperature, called resistivity or specific resistance of the material. Its unit is -m.
Thus, =

RA
.
l

So, it can be defined as the resistance of the given wire of unit

length and unit area of cross-section.

Further, the reciprocal of resistance is called conductance (G).
i.e. G = 1/R
Unit:- -1
or
mho or
Siemens.
The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity ()
i.e. = 1/
-1
-1
Unit:- m
or
mho/m
Resistors
The wires of high resistance used to introduce resistance, in order to control
current in an electrical circuit are called resistors. The circuit symbols of resistors are
given below.
Fixed resistor
variable resistor
Resistors are of two major types: wire bound resistors and carbon resistors. Wire bound resistors are
made by winding the wires of an alloy, viz., manganin, constantan, nichrome. Eg. Rheostat, resistance box.
Resistors in the higher range are made mostly from carbon.
Carbon resistors are compact, inexpensive and
thus find extensive use in electronic circuits.
The value of carbon resistors is indicated using
coloured rings on them (see the figure beside).
Such a system is referred to as colour code of resistors.

For details refer the following table. See page 103 )

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Verification of Ohms Law

(i) Experimental
The given wire is connected with a battery (B) , an ammeter (A), a voltmeter (V)
and a rheostat (Rh) are connected as shown below:
Using the rheostat, different values of
potential difference are measured
using the voltmeter and the
B
corresponding values of current using
A
R
R
h
the ammeter. Further, a graph is
plotted between current and potential
difference, as shown.
I
V
It shows that I V. This verifies Ohms law.

(ii) Mathematical
We have

I = neAvd.

But, vd =

eE

eE
eV

E = V/ l
I = neA

m
ml
V
ml
= 2
. It shows that for a given conductor V/I = a constant. i.e. V I
I n e A

I = neA

(Ohms law)
Note:- The ratio V/I is called resistance.

i.e. R =

ml
2
n e A

R=

But we have

l
A

On comparing, we get

m
2
ne

It shows that the resistivity of a material is inversely proportional to the number

density of free electrons (n) and the relaxation time ( .
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Mobility ():- The drift velocity of electrons through a conductor is directly proportional
to the applied electric field (E). i.e. v d E. & vd = E Where is a constant called
mobility of electrons.
Hence the mobility is defined as the drift velocity per unit
electric field.
Its S.I unit is m2/V.s

eE

Further, vd =
=

i.e. E

eE

Hence

m
i.e.

Conductance:- It is the reciprocal of resistance. i.e. G = 1/R. Its unit is -1 or mho or

Siemens
Conductivity:- It is the reciprocal of resistivity. i.e. = 1/. Its unit is -1 m-1or
mho/m.
Limitations of Ohms law.
The deviations from Ohms law can happen in the following ways:
(a) V ceases to be proportional to I. e.g. in the case of filament lamps at high temperature.
(b) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. e.g. diode
(c) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V for the same current
I .A material exhibiting such behaviour is GaAs.
Materials and devices not obeying Ohms law are said to be non- Ohmic.

Case (a)

case (b)

Case (c)

Variation of resistance with temperature

We have, =

m
2
ne

When temperature increases, the free electrons inside

the conductor undergo frequent collisions due to the thermal agitations. Hence, the

time interval between successive collisions () decreases. This will increase the
resistivity of the wire, thereby its resistance. It shows that the resistance of a
substance increases with temperature.
The resistivity of a substance at different temperatures can be related as:
2 = 1 [1+ (T2 T1)]. Where is constant of the given material, called
temperature coefficient of resistivity. Unit: K-1 or 0C -1. It is defined as the fractional
change in resistance per unit rise in temperature. The value of measures the extent
of variation of resistance of a material with temperature.
Some alloys like Nichrome, manganin and constantan possess high resistivity, but low value of
temperature coefficient of resistivity. Hence they exhibit a very weak dependence of resistivity with
temperature. So, such materials are thus widely used in wire bound standard resistors as their resistance
values would not change appreciably with temperatures.
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The variation of resistivity with temperature for different materials are shown as below:
Copper

Nichrome

Silicon

Superconductivity
It is the phenomenon of vanishing resistance of certain materials at very low temperature, called
critical temperature (Tc). Hence at this temperature, it gains infinite conductivity. e.g. Mercury becomes a
superconductor at 4.2 K, whereas for liquid Helium, it is 2.4 K. It is depicted in the graph given below:
Superconductors can be used in the transmission of electric power
from power stations without significant loss, to make powerful
electromagnets, etc.
However, maintaining such a very low temperature poses
practical difficulty in such uses.
Scientists around the globe are in various missions to produce
Tc
superconductors even at ordinary temperatures, which would be a boon to humanity.
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
(i)

Series: Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series with a battery as shown.

The following are the observations are seen in the series combination.
(a) Current (I) is the same throughout.
(b) Potential difference is not the same. It depends on the value of resistance.
However, V = V1+V2+V3
(c) Let Rs be the effective resistance of the combination.
So, IRs = IR1+IR2 + IR3

Hence
(ii)

Rs = R1+ R2 + R3

The effective resistance in series combination is always greater than that of the lowest resistor.
Parallel:- Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel with a battery as
shown.

The following are the observations are seen in the parallel combination.
(a) Potential difference (V) is the same throughout.
(b) Current not the same. It depends on the value of resistance.
However, I = I1 + I2+ I3
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(c) Let Rp be the effective resistance of the combination.

So, V/Rp = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
Hence 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
E.M.F (E) and Internal resistance (r)
Internal resistance (r) of a cell is the opposition offered by the electrolytes
inside the cell. The p.d developed across the internal resistance is called lost volt (v).
i.e. v= Ir.
The terminal voltage (V), the emf (E) and the lost volt (v) are related as
E = V + v.
Hence E = V + Ir
E
r = (E V) / I
But V = IR.

So,

E = IR + Ir

or

I=

E
R+r

Spl.Note:- In practical calculations, internal resistances of cells in the circuit may be neglected when
the current I is such that >> I r. The internal resistance of dry cells, however, is much higher than the
common electrolytic cells.
The maximum current that can be drawn from a cell is for R = 0 and it is I max = E/r. However, in most cells
the maximum allowed current is much lower than this to prevent permanent damage to the cell.
Charging of cells
Consider a cell of emf E and internal resistance ris charged using a high
voltage d.c source of emf E. The charging current is controlled by an external
resistance R.
E,r +
The emf E of the source cell is used to provide the p.d across R and r,

then to recharge the battery of emf E.

Hence the terminal p.d across the battery, V = E + Ir
and the current in the charging circuit is given by,

I=

R
E
+

E ' E
R+r

ELECTRICAL ENERGY, POWER

We have,
Potential difference, V = W/q Hence W = qV.
Using I = q/t and V =IR, we get,
2
2
W= VIt W= (V /R) t and W = I Rt
However,
Power P = W/t.
Thus using the above equations, we get
2
P=VI
P= V /R
and
P = I2 R
Joules Law of heating states that the quantity of heat developed across a resistor
in an electrical circuit is directly proportional to the square of the current flowing
through it, resistance of the wire and the time of flow.
Hence
H = I2Rt
The heating effect produced by electric current is utilized in heating appliances
such electric iron.
Fuse:- It is a safety device used to avoid excess current through an electrical circuit. A
wire made from an alloy of lead and tin is usually used as fuse wires. As the melting
point of the substance is very low, when the current exceeds the permissible limit, the
wire melts, disconnecting the device from the circuit. This avoid damage to the
appliance. There are fuses of different current capacities. It can be shown that the
maximum current (I) allowed through a fuse wire does not depend on the length of the
wire, rather depends only on the radius (r) as,
I2 r3
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COMBINATION OF CELLS
(i) Series:- Let E1 and E2 be the emfs and r1 and r2, the internal resistances of two cells
connected in series as shown below:
The p.d between A and B,
VAB = E1 I r1
The p.d between B and C,
VBC =
So, The p.d between A and C is VAC = VAB + VBC
= (E1 I r1) +(E2 I r2)
Hence
VAC = (E1 +E2 ) I( r1+ r2) -------------- (1)
Now let the combination be replaced by a single of cell of emf E eq and internal
resistance req as shown.
Here, VAC = Eeq I req -----------(2)
On comparing equations (1) and (2),
Equivalent emf Eeq = E1 +E2
and equivalent internal resistance req = r1+ r2

Thus for n cells, it can be written as E eq = E1 +E2 + E3 + ..+ En & req = r1+ r2
+ r3 + ..+ rn
(ii) Parallel:Let E1 and E2 be the emfs and r1 and r2, the internal resistances of
two cells connected in parallel as shown below: Let V AC = V
V = E1 I1 r1
Also, V = E2 I2 r2
Thus

I1 =

However,
i.e.

E1 V
r1

I2 =

&

E 2V
r2

I = I1 + I2
I=

E 1V
r1

E 2V
r2

E1 E2
1 1
+
V
+
r1 r2
r1 r2

) (

Thus I ( r 1 r 2 ) = (E1 r2 + E2 r1) - V (r1 + r2)

Terminal voltage (V) =

E 1 r 2 + E2 r 1
r1 r 2

+I

r1 r2
)
r 1+ r 2

..(1)

Now let the combination be replaced by a single of cell of emf E eq and internal
resistance req as shown.
Here, VAC = Eeq I req -----------(2)
On comparing equations (1) and (2),
Equivalent emf
=

Eeq

E 1 r 2 + E2 r 1
r1 r 2

and

equivalent internal resistance req

r1 r2
r 1+r 2

On dividing we get,

So, for n cells,

E eq E1 E2
= +
r eq r 1 r 2

E eq E1 E2
E
= + + .+ n
r eq r 1 r 2
rn

&

(For Mixed grouping of cells and related concepts, refer note book)
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KIRCHOFFS RULES
These are some basic rules related to electrical networks, to analyse and solve different circuits.

1.

Junction rule: The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction of an electrical network is zero. i.e.
at any junction of an electrical network, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the
sum of currents leaving the junction. This law follows
the law of conservation of charge.
Using the above rule, at a in the given circuit,
I3 = I1 + I2
2. Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential
around any closed loop involving resistors and cells
in the loop is zero. This follows the law of conservation of
energy.
e.g. in the loop agedba, in the network,
-80 + 1 x I2 + 20 I2 45 + 1 x I3 + 40 I3 = 0
i.e. 21 I2 + 41 I3 = 125
WHEATSTONES BRIDGE
Four resistors P, Q, R and S, a galvanometer and a battery, connected in the
form of a bridge as shown in the figure is called Wheatstones bridge. The direction of
current in the galvanometer depends on the potential at B and D. By adjusting the
resistance values of the bridge, it is possible to make the potential difference between
B and D, zero. Then the galvanometer shows zero deflection I g = 0). Now the bridge is
said to be balanced.
Applying loop rule to ABDA, we get
I 1 P I2 R = 0
I 1 P = I2 R
------- (1)
Applying loop rule to CDBC, we get
I 3 Q I4 S = 0
I 3 Q = I4 S
------- (2)
Divide eqn.(1) by (2)

I2 P
I3Q
we get, I2 = I4

I2 R
I4S

Applying Junction rule at B and D,

and I1 = I3

Hence

P
Q

R
S

This is called Wheatstones Bridge.

METRE BRIDGE
It is the practical form of Wheatstones Bridge. It is used to determine the
unknown resistance of a wire. It consists of a uniform wire AB of length 1m, clamped
between two thick metallic strips bent at right angles, as shown. The metallic strip has
two gaps
across which resistors can be connected.
The end points where the wire is clamped are connected
to a cell through a key. One end of a galvanometer is connected
to the metallic strip midway between the two gaps.
The other end of the galvanometer is connected to a jockey.
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The jockey is essentially a metallic rod whose one end has a knife-edge which can
slide over the wire to make electrical connection. X is an unknown resistance. It is
connected across one of the gaps.
Across the other gap, we connect a known resistance R. By adjusting jockey through the wire, the
deflection in the galvanometer is brought to zero. Now the bridge is balanced. Let k be the resistance per
unit length of the wire AB.
Hence according to Wheatstones principle,

X
kl
=
R k (100l)

Thus the unknown resistance can be calculated using, X =

Rl
(100l)
The experiment is repeated for different values of R and the mean value is calculated.
Special Note:- The metre bridge can also be used to for the following:
(i)
To determine resistivity of the material of a wire:- The unknown resistance (X) of the given
wire is determined as described above. The length (l) of the wire is measured using a ruler
and the radius (r) is measured using a screw gauge. Hence the resistivity can be calculated
using,
(ii)

X r2
l

To compare the resistances of two wires:- The two unknown wires X1 and X2 are connected
in the two gaps of the metre bridge and the balancing point is found. Then by Wheatstones
principle,

(iii)

X1
l
=
X 2 100l

To verify the law of combination of resistances:- The resistance of the individual wires X1 &
X2 are determined using the above method. Further they are first connected in series and
then in parallel and the respective resistances are determined as X 3 and X4.
If
X3 = X1 + X2 and X4 =

X1 X2
, the laws are verified.
X 1+ X 2

[It can be shown that the percentage error in R can be minimised by adjusting the balance point near
the middle of the bridge, i.e., when l1 is close to 50 cm. At this position the bridge is the most sensitive.
( This requires a suitable choice S.)
POTENTIOMETER
It is a device that can be used in the determination and comparison of
V
emfs of cell. It is basically a long piece of uniform wire,
sometimes a few meters in length across which a standard cell is connected.
A current I flows through the wire which can be varied by a variable resistance
(rheostat, R) in the circuit. Since the wire is uniform,
at a constant value of current through the potentiometer
the potential difference between A and any point at a distance l from A
varies with length as V l. Hence the graph between V and l can be plotted as shown.
Thus
V = l,
where represents the potential difference per unit length
(potential gradient.)
It is given by the slope of the graph.

When the galvanometer in the secondary circuit shows

l
zero deflection, the emf E equals the p.d across AJ, which is
the balancing length, l.
Hence
E=l
El
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i.e. the emf of the cell in the secondary circuit is directly proportional to the balancing
length.
This is the principle of potentiometer.
(i) Experiment to compare the emfs of two cells
The two cells of emfs E1 and E2 are connected as
through a two-way key shown in the circuit given beside.
Using a constant value of current in the primary circuit,
With K1 closed, determine the balancing length as l 1.
Similarly with K2 closed, determine balancing length
to be l2.
E1 l1 and E2 l2
Dividing

E 1 l1
=
E 2 l2

Further the experiment can be repeated using different

values of current in the primary circuit and the average value gives the ratio of the
emfs of the two cells.
(ii) To determine the internal resistance of cell.
The cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected in parallel to a resistor
R and a key as shown in the secondary circuit.
With the key K1 open, the balancing length is measured to be l 1.
Hence
E l1 -------------- (1)
With the key K1 closed, the balancing length is measured to be l 2.
Now the p.d across R l2
i.e.

IR l2

r=

---------- (2)

Dividing (2) by (1), we get

On rearranging

( RE+r ) R l
l
R
=
( R +r ) l

2
1

Rl1 = Rl2+ rl2

R (l 1l 1)
l2

Thus the internal resistance of the given cell is calculated using the above equation.
The experiment can be repeated using the different values of current or using different
values of known resistance R.

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Or

J = ne

= ne2

E
m

It shows that J E