Question No=21

What is electrical conduction Model? Derive

its mathematical relation by explaining each step.
Model of electrical conduction in metals was first proposed by Paul Drude (1863–
1906) in 1900. This model leads to Ohm’s law and shows that resistivity can be
related to the motion of electrons in metals. Although the Drude model described
here has limitations, it introduces concepts that are applied in more elaborate
treatments. Consider a conductor as a regular array of atoms plus a collection of
free electrons, which are sometimes called conduction electrons. The conduction
electrons, although bound to their respective atoms when the atoms are not part
of a solid, become free when the atoms condense into a solid. In the absence of
an electric field, the conduction electrons move in random directions through the
conductor. The situation is similar to the motion of gas molecules confined in a
vessel. In fact, some scientists refer to conduction electrons in a metal as an
electron gas. When an electric field is applied, the free electrons drift slowly in a
direction opposite that of the electric field (Active Fig. 27.3b), with an average
drift speed vd that is much smaller (typically 1024 m/s) than their average speed
between collisions (typically 106 m/s). In our model, we make the following
assumptions:
1. The electron’s motion after a collision is independent of its motion before the
collision.
2. The excess energy acquired by the electrons in the electric field is transferred
to the atoms of the conductor when the electrons and atoms collide.
With regard to assumption (2), the energy transferred to the atoms increases
their vibrational energy, which causes the temperature of the conductor to
increase. We are now in a position to derive an expression for the drift velocity.
When a free electron of mass 𝑚𝑒 and charge q =(-e) is subjected to an electric
field E , it experiences a force 𝑭→ =qE. The electron is a particle under a net force,
∑𝑭 𝒒𝑬
and its acceleration can be found from Newton’s second law, =
𝒎 𝒎

Because the electric field is uniform, the electron’s acceleration is constant, so the
electron can be modeled as a particle under constant acceleration. If vi is the
electron’s initial velocity the instant after a collision (which occurs at a time
defined as t = 0), the velocity of the electron at a very short time t later
(immediately before the next collision occurs) is, from Equation 4.8,
𝒒𝑬
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒕
𝒎
Let’s now take the average value of vf for all the electrons in the wire over all
possible collision times t and all possible values of vi. Assuming the initial
velocities are randomly distributed over all possible directions, the average value
of vi is zero. The average value of the second term of Equation 27.12 is (qE/m),
where t is the average time interval between successive collisions. Because the
average value of v S f is equal to the drift velocity,
𝒒𝑬
𝒗𝒇𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉
𝒎
The value of t depends on the size of the metal atoms and the number of
electrons per unit volume. We can relate this expression for drift velocity in
Equation 27.13 to the current in the conductor. Substituting the magnitude of the
velocity from Equation 27.13 into Equation 27.5, the current density
𝑬𝒏𝒒𝟐
𝒋 = 𝒏𝒒𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉
𝒎𝒆
where n is the number of electrons per unit volume. Comparing this expression
with Ohm’s law, J = 𝜎E, we obtain the following relationships for conductivity and
resistivity of a conductor:
𝒏𝝉𝒒𝟐
𝝈=
𝒎𝒆
𝟏 𝒎𝒆
𝝆= =
𝝈 𝒏𝝉𝒒𝟐
According to this classical model, conductivity and resistivity do not depend on
the strength of the electric field. This feature is characteristic of a conductor
obeying Ohm’s law.
Question No=22
What is Electric Power? Derive
𝑽𝟐
the relations P = VI, 𝑷 = and P = 𝑰𝟐 R.
𝑹
Whether power is used in a mechanical environment or an electrical
environment, the definition of power is still the same. The way in which it
may be discussed may be slightly different, but nevertheless the definition
and actuality of it is exactly the same.
In general physics terms, power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical
energy is transferred by an electric circuit. It is the rate of doing work. So,
first, what is energy and how is it transferred? It’s hard to state simply, but
energy is basically the ability of something o move something else or to do
work. There are many forms of energy: mechanical, electrical, chemical,
electromagnetic, thermal, and many others.
Energy can never be created or destroyed, only transferred to another
form. A lot of what we’re doing in electronics is converting different forms of
energy to and from electric energy. Lighting LEDs turns electric energy
into electromagnetic energy. Spinning motors turns electric energy into
mechanical energy. Buzzing buzzers makes sound energy. Powering a
circuit off a 9V alkaline battery turn chemical energy into electrical energy.
All of these are forms of energy transfers.

In terms of an electric circuit, electrical power is the rate, per unit time, at
which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit.
From the definition it can be seen that:
W = (VQ)/t
But as: Q/t = Current
Substituting: W=VI
P = VI

Where:
W = power in watts
 V = potential in volts
I = current in amps
Q = charge in coulombs
t = time in seconds

What is a watt: unit of power:

The unit of power is the watt
which is denoted by the symbol W and it is named after the Scottish
engineer James Watt (1736–1819).
The watt is the SI unit of power defining the rate of energy conversion and
it is equivalent to one joule per second.

Calculating power:
The amount of power dissipated in a
circuit can be easily determined. It is simply the product of the potential
difference or voltage across the particular element, multiplied by the current
flowing through it. In other words an electrical fire running from a 250 volt
supply, and consuming 4 amps of current will dissipate 250 x 4 = 1000 watts
or 1 kilowatt. In other words.
P=VI …..(1)
In some instances the actual resistance of the circuit element may be known.
By using Ohm's Law ( V = I x R) it is possible to calculate the power if either
the voltage or current is known. For example the mains voltage may be
known to be 250 volts and the element resistance may be known to be 62.5
Ohms.
By performing some simple algebra it is possible to discover the very useful
formulae:
𝑽
By ohms law: 𝑰 =
𝑹

𝑽𝟐
By putting the value or I in equation (1) 𝑷= …..(2)
𝑹

Also by ohms law V=I×R

By putting the value or V in equation (2)
P = 𝑰𝟐 R
Using these formulae it is simple to work out the power dissipated in the
62.5 ohm resistor when a voltage of 250 volts is placed across it.
𝑽𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟐
𝑷= = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾
𝑹 𝟔𝟐.𝟓

Power is one of the key units in many electronic circuits. It can be used to
indicate the level of heat dissipated in a unit or even an individual
component, it can be used to define the power consumed, and it can also
be used to define the amount of power generated by the system to pass on
to the next item. In these and very many other areas, power measured in
watts is a key parameter which is of great importance.

Question No=23
What is electromotive force?
Derive its mathematical expression E=V-Ir by
drawing a circuit?
Source of electromotive force:
A device that by doing work on
charge carriers, maintains potential difference between its terminals is called a
source of electromotive force (emf).
Energy can be found in many forms such as heat, mechanical and electromagnetic
etc. Other form of energy is converted into electricity in a source of electromotive
force:

battery - chemical energy

electric generator - mechanical energy
solar cell - electromagnetic radiation
thermopile - internal energy
living cell - chemical energy
Electromotive Force:
The energy supplied to a unit charge in moving it from
negative to positive electrode inside the source, is called electromotive force.
OR
It is defined as the energy supplied to the unit charge by the source.
Explanation:

Consider a battery connected across a resistance to maintain the steady current

through it. The cell continuously supplies energy which is dissipated in the
resistance of the circuit. Let ∆Q is charge passing through any cross-section of
circuit in time ∆t and ∆W is energy supplied to the positive charge to force it to go
to the higher energy potential. Then, emf of a source is:
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
E= 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

∆W
𝐸=
∆q
Unit:
SI unit of emf is J/C or volt
Internal Resistance:
The resistance offered by the electrolyte present between
two electrodes of a cell to the flow of ions is called internal resistance of the cell.
It is denoted by r.
Terminal potential difference:
 The potential difference across the terminal of cell
(battery) when the current is being drawn from it is called terminal potential
difference.

Relation between Terminal potential difference and emf:

Consider a cell (source)
Of emf E having internal resistance r connected in a circuit as shown in figure:

Let V is the potential difference across the external resistance R. The current I
flowing throw the circuit is give by
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟
𝐸 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑟
𝑉𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 Terminal potential difference
𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑉𝑡
Where E is the emf of source

Question No=24
What are series circuit and
parallel circuits? Derive mathematical
expressions for total resistance of series circuit
and parallel circuit?
Series Circuit:
Components connected in series are connected along a single path, so
the same current flows through all of the components. ... In a series circuit,
the current through each of the components is the same, and the voltage
across the circuit is the sum of the voltages across each component. A
circuit composed solely of components connected in series is known as
a series circuit. The current in a series circuit goes through every
component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a series
connection carry the same current.

Consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs and one
6 V battery. If a wire joins the battery to one bulb, to the next bulb, to the
next bulb, to the next bulb, then back to the battery, in one continuous loop,
the bulbs are said to be in series. If the four light bulbs are connected in
series, there is the same current through all of them, and the voltage
drop is 1.5 V across each bulb.

(Voltage Drops)
“Before we go any further let's define what a "voltage drop" is. A voltage
drop is the amount the voltage lowers when crossing a component from the
negative side to the positive side in a series circuit. If you placed a
multimeter across a resistor, the voltage drop would be the amount of
voltage you are reading.”
 In a series circuit, every device must function for the circuit to be complete.
One bulb burning out in a series circuit breaks the circuit. A series circuit's
principal characteristic is that it has only one path in which its current can
flow. Opening or breaking a series circuit at any point causes the entire
circuit to "open" or stop operating.

Resistance in series circuit:

In a series circuit you will need to calculate the
total resistance of the circuit in order to figure out the amperage. This is
done by adding up the individual values of each component in series. In
this example we have three resistors. To calculate the total resistance we
use the formula:

 RT = R1 + R2 + R3
 2 + 2 + 3 = 7 Ohms
 R total is 7 Ohms

Current in series Circuit:

Now with these two rules we can learn how to calculate the amperage of a
circuit.
Remember from Ohms Law that I = V / R. Now we will modify this slightly
and say I = V / R total.
Lets follow our example figure:
  RT = R1 + R2 + R3
 RT = 7 Ohms
 I = V / RT
 I = 12V / 7 Ohms
 I = 1.7 Amp

Voltage in Series Circuit:

If we had the amperage already and wanted to know the voltage, we can
use Ohm's Law as well.

 V = I x R total
 V = 1.7 A x 7 Ohms
 V = 12 V

Parallel Circuit:
A Parallel circuit is one with several different
paths for the electricity to travel. It's like a river that has been divided up
into smaller streams, however, all the streams come back to the same point
to form the river once again. In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each of
the components is the same, and the total current is the sum of the
currents through each component. Components connected in parallel are
connected along multiple paths, so the same voltage is applied to each
component

The parallel circuit has very different characteristics than a series circuit.
For one, the total resistance of a Parallel Circuit is NOT equal to the sum of
the resistors (like in a series circuit). The total resistance in a parallel circuit
is always less than any of the branch resistances. Adding more parallel
resistances to the paths causes the total resistance in the circuit to
decrease. As you add more and more branches to the circuit the total
current will increase because Ohm's Law states that the lower the
resistance, the higher the current.
 Consider a parallel circuit with three resistance attached to it. Before we get
into the calculations, remember what we said at the start: "The total
resistance of a parallel circuit is NOT equal to the sum of the resistors
(like in a series circuit). We will use a parallel circuit with 3 paths as an
example (it could be 2, 4 or a 1000 resistors in parallel). The power
source is providing 12 volts and the value of the resistors are 5 Ohms, 5
Ohms and 2 Ohms.

Let's summize this EXAMPLE:

 Voltage = 12V
 R1 = 4 Ohm
 R2 = 4 Ohm
 R3 = 2 Ohm

Remember that "Rt" means Total resistance of the circuit.

R1, R2, etc. are Resistor one, Resistor two, etc.

Now we will apply the formula above to this example:

1 1 1
1
—- —- —-
—-
= + +
R3
Rt R1 R2

Therefore:
1 1 1
1
—- —- —-
—-
= + +
2
Rt 4 4

It is easiest to change the fractions into decimal numbers (example 1 divide

by 4 equals .25):

 1/Rt = .25 + .25 + .5

 1/Rt = 1

Now you have to get rid of the 1 on the left side so...

 Rt = 1/1
 Rt = 1 Ohms

NOW, Let's try a more complex one:

 Voltage = 12 Volts
 R1 = 10 Ohms
 R2 = 20 Ohms
 R3 = 10 Ohms
 R4 = 1 Ohms
 1/Rt = 1/10 + 1/20 + 1/10 + 1/1
 1/Rt = .1 + .05 + .1 + 1
 1/Rt = 1.25
 Rt = 1/1.25 = .8 Ohms
Question No=25
What are Kirchhoff’s Laws?
Explain in detail Kirchhoff’s Current Law by
considering any example.
Kirchhoff’s First rule:
Kirchhoff’s First rule is in accordance with law of
conversation of charge. It states that sum of all the currents meeting at point in a
circuit is zero.
OR
The sum of all the currents flowing towards appoint is equal to the sum of all
currents flowing away from the point.
Mathematically:
∑I=0

Considering the above figure as per

the Kirchhoff’s Current Law. The
current flowing towards a point is
taken as positive and flowing away
from the point is taken as negative.
Thus we can write,
i1 + i2 – i3 – i4 – i5 + i6 = 0 ………
(1)
i1 + i2 + i6 = i3 + i4 + i5
Which is in accordance with law of
conversation of charge. Kirchhoff’s first rule is
also known as Kirchhoff’s point rule.
Example:
Let’s look how we could apply Kirchhoff’s current law to
resistors in parallel, whether the resistances in those branches are equal or
unequal. Consider the following circuit diagram:

In this simple parallel resistor example there are two distinct junctions for
current. Junction one occurs at node B, and junction two occurs at node E.
Thus we can use Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule for the electrical currents at both
of these two distinct junctions, for those currents entering the junction and
for those currents flowing leaving the junction.
To start, all the current, IT leaves the 24 volt supply and arrives at point A
and from there it enters node B. Node B is a junction as the current can
now split into two distinct directions, with some of the current flowing
downwards and through resistor R1 with the remainder continuing on
through resistor R2 via node C. Note that the currents flowing into and out
of a node point are commonly called branch currents.
We can use Ohm’s Law to determine the individual branch currents through
each resistor as: I = V/R, thus:
For current branch B to E through resistor R1

For current branch C to D through resistor R2

From above we know that Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the
currents entering a junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the
junction, and in our simple example above, there is one current, IT going
into the junction at node B and two currents leaving the junction, I1 and I2.
Since we now know from calculation that the currents leaving the junction
at node B is I1equals 3 amps and I2 equals 2 amps, the sum of the currents
entering the junction at node B must equal 3 + 2 = 5 amps. Thus ΣIN = IT =
5 amperes.
In our example, we have two distinct junctions at node B and node E, thus
we can confirm this value for IT as the two currents recombine again at
node E. So, for Kirchhoff’s junction rule to hold true, the sum of the currents
into point F must equal the sum of the currents flowing out of the junction at
node E.
As the two currents entering junction E are 3 amps and 2 amps
respectively, the sum of the currents entering point F is therefore: 3 + 2 = 5
amperes. Thus ΣIN = IT = 5 amperes and therefore Kirchhoff’s current law
holds true as this is the same value as the current leaving point A.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

This rule is in accordance with law of conversation
of energy.The algebraic sum of all the potential changes along a closed loop is
equal to zero.
Explanation:

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the potential
differences in any loop must be equal to zero as: ΣV = 0. Since the two
resistors, R1 and R2 are wired together in a series connection, they are both
part of the same loop so the same current must flow through each resistor.
Thus the voltage drop across resistor, R1 = I*R1 and the voltage drop
across resistor, R2 = I*R2 giving by KVL:

We can see that applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to this single closed loop
produces the formula for the equivalent or total resistance in the series
circuit and we can expand on this to find the values of the voltage drops
around the loop.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Example:
Three resistor of
values: 10 ohms, 20 ohms and 30 ohms, respectively are connected in
series across a 12 volt battery supply. Calculate: a) the total resistance, b)
the circuit current, c) the current through each resistor, d) the voltage drop
across each resistor, e) verify that Kirchhoff’s voltage law, KVL holds true.

a) Total Resistance (RT)

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10Ω + 20Ω + 30Ω = 60Ω
Then the total circuit resistance RT is equal to 60Ω

b) Circuit Current (I)

Thus the total circuit current I is equal to 0.2 amperes or 200mA

c) Current Through Each Resistor

The resistors are wired together in series, they are all part of the same loop
and therefore each experience the same amount of current. Thus:
IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = ISERIES = 0.2 amperes

d) Voltage Drop Across Each Resistor

VR1 = I x R1 = 0.2 x 10 = 2 volts
VR2 = I x R2 = 0.2 x 20 = 4 volts
VR3 = I x R3 = 0.2 x 30 = 6 volts

e) Verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Thus Kirchhoff’s voltage law holds true as the individual voltage drops
around the closed loop add up to the total.
Question no=29
(a) When the switch S in the circuit of
Figure is closed, will the equivalent resistance between
points a and b increase or decrease? State your
reasoning. (b) Assume the equivalent resistance drops
by 50.0% when the switch is closed. Determine the
value of R.

When switch is open:

𝑅1 = 90.0 + 10.0 = 100.0
𝑅2 = 10.0 + 90.0 = 100.0
1 1 1 2 1
=( + )= =
𝑅𝑑 100 100 100 50
𝑅𝑑 = 50
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑑
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑅 + 50 … … . (1)
When switch is closed:
1 1 1
𝑅1 = + =
90 10 9
1 1 1
𝑅2 = + =
10 90 9
 1 1
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅 + ( + )
𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅 + ( 1 + 1 ) = 𝑅 = (9 + 9) = 𝑅 + 18
9 9

The equivalent resistance between points a and b will decrease when the switch
is closed. Because when we close the switch then there will be one more parallel
branch in the parallel branch. As we know that the resistance in parallel circuit is
less than in series circuit so the resistance will decrease.
(B)
As we are given that equivalent resistance drops by 50.0% when the switch is
closed so:
𝑅 + 18
𝑅𝑐 = … … . . (2)
2
Now to determine R compare equ (1) and (2)

𝑅 + 50
𝑅 + 18 =
2

2𝑅 + 36 = 𝑅 + 50
2𝑅 − 𝑅 = 50 − 36
𝑅 = 14