ELECTRICITY

Basics
1. Current (I) is the rate of flow of charge (Q). Current is measured by an ammeter in
amperes (A) and charge in coulombs (C).
Q
I=
t
The charge is carried by electrons which carry the elementary charge (e) or (q). The
elementary charge is 1.6 ×10−19 C . If there are N electrons then the total charge
Q=Ne∨Nq .
It is also known that for current flowing through a wire.

Where n is called the number density (Number of electrons per unit volume), A is the
cross sectional area of the wire and v is the drift speed of electrons or that of charge
carriers.
2. Electromotive force, E (e.m.f.) is the energy converted from other forms into electrical
per unit charge passing through the source. It is also the work done per unit charge to
move a charge around a circuit. E.m.f. is measured by a voltmeter in volts (V).
W
E=
Q
3. Potential difference (p.d.)/ Voltage (V) is the energy converted from electrical to other
forms (W) per unit charge (Q) passing between two points. It is also said to be the work
done per unit charge to move the charge between two points. p.d. is measured by a
voltmeter in volts (V).
W
V=
Q
4. Ohm’s Law states that: Potential difference across a resistance (R) is proportional to the
current through the resistance provided temperature is kept constant.
V ∝I
V =IR
5. All materials have some resistance to the flow of charge.
As free electrons move through a metal wire, they collide with ions which get in their
way. As a result, they transfer some, or all, of their kinetic energy on collision, which
causes electrical heating.
Resistance of a wire or a resistor is measured in ohms (Ω). Resistance depends on
the length of the wire, the cross-sectional area through which the current is passing and
the resistivity of the material.

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 Resistance of a wire is proportional to its length. It is also inversely proportional to the
square of its diameter and the cross sectional area.

6. Power (P) supplied by a source of e.m.f. (E) through which a current (I) is flowing
through is given by:
P=IE
7. Power dissipated in a resistor (R) of an electrical device across which a p.d. (V) is applied
and a current (I) is flowing can be obtained in the following ways.
P=VI
P=I 2 R
V2
P=
R
8. Energy (E) used or dissipated by an electrical device during a time interval (t) is given
by:
E=VIt E=I 2 Rt
2
V
E= t
R
Circuit Symbols

 The function of the most common components are:

o Switch: Turn the circuit on (closed), or off (open)
o Fixed resistor: A resistor limits the flow of current. A fixed resistor has a
resistance it cannot change
o Variable resistor: A resistor with a slider that can be used to change its
resistance. Used often in dimmer switches and volume controls
o Thermistor: The resistance of a thermistor depends on its temperature. As its
temperature increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa
o Light-dependent resistor (LDR): The resistance of an LDR depends on the light
intensity. As the light intensity increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa
o Diode: A diode allows current to flow in one direction only. They are used to
convert AC to DC current
o Light-emitting diode (LED): This is equivalent to a diode and emits light when a
current passes through it. These are used for aviation lighting and displays (TVs,
road signs)
o Ammeter: Used to measure the current in a circuit. Connected in series with
other component

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o Voltmeter: Use to measure the potential difference of an electrical component.
Connected in parallel with component

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SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Resistors in Series

Resistors in parallel

Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchhoff’s first law states that:

o The sum of the currents entering a junction always equal the sum of the
currents out of the junction

Kirchhoff’s second law states that:

o The sum of the e.m.f’s in a closed circuit equals the sum of the potential
differences

Series and parallel rules

 In series p.d. is shared and current is the same among the resistors.
 In parallel p.d. is the same and current is shared among the resistors.

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QUESTIONS
In the following circuits find
i. The total resistance
ii. The current flowing in the battery and through each resistor.
iii. P.d across each resistor.
iv. Power supplied by the battery and dissipated by each resistor.

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Internal Resistance

The internal resistance causes loss of voltage or energy loss in a power supply.

 VR is the terminal potential difference

o This is the voltage available in the circuit itself
o Terminal p.d = I × R (Ohm’s law)

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  Vr is the lost volts
o This is the voltage lost in the cell due to internal resistance, so, from conservation
of energy:
o Lost volts = e.m.f − terminal p.d
o Lost volts = I × r (Ohm’s law)

Potential Divider Circuit

The potential difference V across each resistor depends upon its resistance R:

o The resistor with the largest resistance will have a greater potential

difference than the other one from V = IR
o If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it will get a greater share of
the potential difference, whilst the other resistor will get a smaller share

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Variable Resistance Components

 From Ohm’s law V = IR, the potential difference Vout from a resistor in a potential divider
circuit is proportional to its resistance
o If an LDR or thermistor's resistance decreases, the potential difference through it
also decreases
o If an LDR or thermistor's resistance increases, the potential difference through it
also increases
 Since the total p.d of the components must be equal to V in, if the p.d of the sensory
resistor decreases then the p.d of the other resistor in the circuit must increase and vice
versa

The Galvanometer

A galvanometer is a type of sensitive ammeter used to detect electric current. It is used in a

potentiometer to measure e.m.f between two points in a circuit. The circuit symbol is recognised
by an arrow in a circle:

The arrow represents a needle which deflects depending on the amount of current passing
through

o When the arrow is facing directly upwards, there is no current

o This is called null deflection

Ohm’s law tells us that the current through a conductor (wire) is directly proportional to the
potential difference through it i.e. no p.d means no current flows through the galvanometer

A galvanometer has p.d of zero when the potential on one side equals the potential on the other
side

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This is at the position at which it is connected on the wire (which varies with the sliding
contact) gives a p.d equal to the EMF of the cell connected to the galvanometer

The cell should be connected such that its potential opposes the potential on the wire i.e. the
positive terminal of the power supply faces the positive terminal of the cell:

When the sliding contact moves along the potentiometer wire, you add or remove resistance
from/to the external circuit. This changes the potential drop across X and T.

Location of the sliding point is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero and the length l 2 is the
called the balance length. This is until the potential difference from X to T, V XT , equals V2 or E2.
The direction of the two e.m.fs oppose each other and there is no current. Thus:

V XT =V 2

The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length, R ∝ L. At balance length l2 the current I
through the wire XY is the same at all points of the wire. Thus for a resistance of the wire that
depends on the length, from V = IR then V∝ R and if that is the case since R ∝ L then V ∝ L.
What follows then is

V =kL

V XT =V 2=k l 2

V XY =k l 1

V 2 l2
=
V XY l1

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